Philosophy and History of Biology publishes papers resulting from original research regarding philosophy and/or history of biology and its epistemic interfaces, such as history and philosophy of biology and scientific education.
Universidade de São Paulo. Associação Brasileira de Filosofia e História da Biologia. Centro Interunidades de História da Ciência.
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Editorial do Volume 20, Número 2, da revista Filosofia e História da Biologia.
Copyright (c) 2025 Filosofia e História da Biologia https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
O presente artigo visa apresentar, sucintamente, duas concepções distintas acerca de unidades elementares da vida, a saber: a teoria das mônadas de Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) e a teoria das microzymas de Pierre Jacques Antoine Béchamp (1816-1908), datadas respectivamente dos séculos XVII-XVIII e do século XIX. Argumentamos que, com base em uma comparação das características e virtudes das propostas filosóficas de Leibniz, podemos considerar a microzyma, uma entidade científica proposta por Béchamp em seus escritos de química e biologia, como também um tipo de mônada orgânica ou biológica.
Balaenoptera musculus: the “Sophia’s whale” as scientific heritage of the Museum of Natural History and Science of the University of Porto (MHNC-UP)
This article examines the historical process of patrimonialization of the blue whale, known as “Sophia's whale”, belonging to the zoology collection of the Natural History and Science Museum of the University of Porto (MHNC-UP), in Portugal. The text details the transformation of this zoological specimen into scientific and museological heritage. The research addresses the stages of musealization, patrimonial classification, and the importance of the skeleton for science. Additionally, it highlights the cultural relevance of the specimen, evidenced by the literary reference of the renowned Portuguese poet Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen. The method used in this investigation was historical and documentary analysis, encompassing information contained in books, photographs, and videos, from the whale's stranding at Praia do Paraíso in 1937 to its installation in the Gallery of Biodiversity, located in Casa Andresen, in 2014. The conclusions of this investigation show that this whale has become a symbol of MHNC-UP, representing an iconic scientific and cultural heritage for the history of Lusitanian and Porto zoology, and providing information about a fascinating chapter in the history of science and museology.
Editorial do Volume 20, Número 1, da revista Filosofia e História da Biologia.
Galapagos finches in biology education: historical myths and possibilities for understanding the nature of science
No other group of living creatures is as commonly associated with Charles Darwin (1809–1882) as the Galápagos finches. Popularly known as “Darwin’s finches,” it was long believed that these birds were the primary stimulus that led the naturalist to consider evolution by natural selection. This narrative, although popular especially in biology textbooks, rests on a number of historical inaccuracies. At least four closely integrated myths make up the “Darwin-Galápagos episode”: that Darwin’s conversion to the transmutation of species occurred on the Galápagos and that the iconic finches played a key role in this conversion; that Darwin discovered the relationship between beaks and the ecological environment on the different islands; that finches were the primary inspiration for Darwin’s theory of natural selection; and, finally, that the Galápagos finches were essential to Darwin's argument for evolution in On the Origin of Species (1859). In this article, we aim to discuss the different historical inaccuracies surrounding the Galápagos finches episode, as well as the potential of this historical episode for understanding explicit aspects of the nature of science in biology teaching.
Editorial do Volume 19, Número 2, da revista Filosofia e História da Biologia.
Copyright (c) 2024 Filosofia e História da Biologia https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Eugenics and miscegenation in the work Intimate Aspects of Japan (1953) by Salvador de Toledo Piza Júnior
Professor and geneticist at the Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture (ESALQ-USP), Salvador de Toledo Piza Júnior (1898-1988) was one of the most radical intellectuals of the Brazilian eugenics movement in the 1930s. Through his activities as a contributor and director of the journal Boletim de Eugenia (1929-1933), Piza Júnior defended extreme measures of “negative” eugenics, such as the sterilization of “degenerates”, segregation and the prohibition of interracial marriages. However, little is known about the positions defended by this geneticist after the Second World War. From this problem, based on documentary research in dialogue with specialized literature, this article aims to identify the permanence of the eugenics ideology in Piza Júnior’s work in the post-1945 context. To this end, the discussions on race and miscegenation presented in the book Intimate Aspects of Japan (1953), awarded by the Brazilian Academy of Letters, will be analyzed. It is concluded that despite having abandoned the term eugenics in his publications in the second half of the 20th century, Piza Júnior did not renounce his main thesis disseminated in the Boletim de Eugenia: the condemnation of miscegenation between whites and blacks as a racial degeneration.
Punctuated equilibrium: proposal, foundation and reception (1972-1993)
The scarcity of transitional forms in the geological record was a problem concerning 19th-century transmutation species theories. According to Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882), it was perhaps the most serious objection to his proposed theory in the several Editions of The Origin of Species, departing 1859. Although Darwin and other scholars proposed explanations, this problem persisted until the 20th century in the Modern Synthesis. In the 1970s, two American palaeontologists, Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002), presented the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis as an alternative to the gradualism that Darwin and the Modern Synthesis admitted. This paper aims to discuss the proposal of the punctuated equilibrium. In addition, the foundation Gould and Eldredge gave and how the scientific community reacted to it. The analysis showed that punctuated equilibrium complemented Darwin's proposal and the Modern Synthesis. Thus, criticisms such as opposition to these ideas are unjustified. The authors sought to base their hypothesis on evidence from their and other authors' investigations. The reactions to the proposal varied during the period studied (1972-1993). Still, it got more accepted among palaeontologists and met with more significant restrictions among those who dedicated themselves to genetics, mainly to population genetics.
Critical analysis and challenges of the Synthetic Theory of Evolution and its place in contemporary biology: a contribution to the debate on its expansion or new synthesis
The Synthetic Theory of Evolution, developed between 1930 and 1950 by Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900-1975), Ernst Mayr (1904-2005) & George G. Simpson (1902-1984), is based on the ideas of Charles Darwin (1809-1882), Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) among others. Although it is a fundamental theoretical framework for explaining the evolution of living beings, its structure has been the subject of debate due to its multiple hypotheses and theoretical assumptions. Currently, criticism of this theory has intensified due to the growing volume of biological data and the emergence of new concepts. Some propose updating it to incorporate this information, but there is no consensus on how to do so. Others suggest alternative approaches, which raises the difficulty of defining which aspects to change. In summary, the structure of the Synthetic Theory of Evolution is a topic that is constantly debated and requires a deeper review to enhance its explanatory capacity in the context of scientific advances and the growing understanding of evolution. This work aims to analyze proposals for restructuring the Synthetic Theory, identify its drawbacks, and provide a synthesis of the current state of the theory.
Robert Hooke and the cell in the National Textbook Program 2021
The 2021 notice of the National Textbook Program, the first providing for integrated collections for Natural Sciences, did not bring explicit recommendations on the importance of the historical contextualisation of content, although the current educational legislation indicates it. Considering the relevance of textbooks as a reference for teachers and students, as well as the recurrence of the Robert Hooke and cell theme in academic works related to the didactic insertion of the History of Science, we present the results of the detailed analysis of the presence of this theme in the collections approved in the PNLD 2021. We observed, on the one hand, sparse mentions of historical elements, distortions, and pseudo-historical narratives and, on the other, robust historical-philosophical approaches based on recent historiography.
The value of ethology and neurology for ethics: prosocial behavior, mirror neurons, and the evolutionary continuity of empathy
This paper presents the importance of ethology in improving discussions about ethics, particularly about the origins of ethics based on prosocial behaviors and animal proto-morality. Emphasis is placed on the arguments of naturalist Alexander Skutch and primatologist Frans De Waal. Moreover, the Mirror Neuron System (MNS) is presented as one of the explanatory factors of the evolutionary continuity of empathy and prosocial behavior. Along the same lines, the proposal of the negotiating man (homo negotiatus) is analyzed as a dynamic anthropological model. It concludes by pointing out the importance of ethology for ethics, emphasizing the role of MNS in empathy, and proposing that the problem of liberty and determination of ethical agents should be addressed as gradual criteria.
The invention of the biological subject and the government of life: (still) Giorgio Agamben’s reflections on the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic
This article problematizes Giorgio Agamben's reflections on the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. By promoting biopolitical debate, it reaffirms Agamben’s argument of pandemic politicization under the paradox of in/security, observed in the governmental organization that the author termed a securitarian state. Thus, it mobilizes the concepts of the state of exception and bare life from the Italian philosopher, also drawing on Michel Foucault to explore issues related to the emergence of a bio-knowledge that underpins and serves the exercise of a biopower. Finally, it speculates on the constitution of the biological subject as a mode of securitarian subjectivation in response to Agamben’s critique of individuals’ passivity in the face of peaceful acceptance of exceptional government during the pandemic, motivating the population’s choice of biological life over other forms of life.
The Darwinian notion of environment in the perspective of Georges Canguilhem
The statements that Georges Canguilhem made concerning the novelty implied in the Darwinian notion of environment are an example of the heuristic capacity of his way of understanding the history of concepts. In fact, what Canguilhem allows us to see is that the notion of environment im-plied in the theory of natural selection is a foreign and supervening element to the double filiation, physical and anthropogeographical, of the ways of thinking about the milieu that until then guided physiological studies and Nat-ural History itself.
This paper aims at defending that there is homosexuality in non-human animals. Sexual intercourse between non-human animals of the same sex has been recorded for a long time. Many people have used this fact to defend ethical and political issues related to sexual orientation, which, in its turn, generates some debate. Especially three different arguments have been raised to reject the idea that homosexuality exists among animals: same sex behavior take place in unnatural places, they should not be considered as sexual behavior, and sexuality is inaccessible in non-human animals. In this paper, these arguments will be discussed, and, from a dispositionalist definition of homosexuality, it will be argued that in some specific cases there is homosexuality in non-human animals.
Discontinuity in the history of Taphonomy
The purpose of this paper is to elucidate factor which contributed to the temporary loss of the European tradition of Taphonomy, which was developed during the first half of the twentieth century, and its rediscovery and reinvention in North America during the Post-War. Such factors are not restricted to the intellectual content of papers and books produced by researchers but have to do also with linguistic, cultural, historical, and institutional matters, which have shaped and conditioned the reception of ideas and concepts within Paleontology during the twentieth century. These factors include the transition from a multilingual scientific culture to a monolingual one, the shift of Paleontology’s center from Europe to the United States, the ideology of researchers, among other factors.
introduction of the archetype concept in Immunology was proposed in 2019. Considering the broad and complex functions of the immune system, the collection of different cell types and cytokines, gene expression programs and cellular plasticity, the archetype concept in this area could play an organizing role for the generation of new immunological practices and theories. In this paper I analyze the concept of immune archetype, and I briefly explore the origin of the term and its meanings in some non-biological contexts and in significant biological contexts, such as morphoanatomy, neurobiology and ecology. In light of these considerations, I propose a new immune archetype, the granuloma, a complex and evolutionarily conserved cellular structure. I conclude this work by reviewing the meanings of archetype in the different contexts, comparing them with that proposed to immunological phenomena, and contributing toan understating of topics of interest to the philosophy of immunology.
Toulmin’s concept of “natural order” and its application to the teaching of biology.
Science teaching has been consolidated as an autonomous discipline, although linked to the contents of science and its history. Within this discipline, we already notice the existence of subdisciplines whose differences lie in the particular science they deal with: such is the case of the didactics of Biology. This article studies the possibility of applying the idea of “natural order”, devised by Toulmin, to a particular case of biology teaching: the teaching of theories of evolution. It allows us to distinguish, in a much more adequate way than is explained in many manuals, between Lamarckism and Darwinism. Likewise, we see that there is no change in the “natural order” when moving from classical Darwinism to the synthetic theory of evolution, whose “natural order” is concentrated in the Hardy-Weinberg law. It also allows us to see that the synthetic theory of evolution and punctuated equilibrium share the same “natural order” but not the explanation for its alteration, which makes them alternative theories. Finally, we can explore the concept of “natural order” in the context of evo-devo theory after defining the concept of “morphogenetic space”. We see that this theory and the synthetic theory of evolution do not share the same “natural order”, which makes them complementary and not alternatives.
Assimilations between society and organism: canguillhemian Notes
The objective of this article is to examine the relationship between organism and society in light of the work of Georges Canguilhem (1904-1995), specifically in the text entitled The problem of regulations in organism and society ([1955], 2005), the result of a conference carried out at Israeli Alliance and published in the book Writings on Medicine. The temptation to assimilate society to the organism and, conversely, the organism to a society, was one of the philosophical problems posed by Canguilhem ([1955], 2005). It is precisely this section that we will focus on with the aim of pointing out positive and negative developments of these Canguillhemian interdisciplinary movements, as well as fundamental differences between organism and society.
Louis Agassiz: science, photography and race in the tropics
Professor of zoology and geology, founder and director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, Louis Agassiz (1807-1873) travelled to Brazil between 1865 and 1866 as part of the Thayer scientific mission. This mission aimed to clarify the origin of species and investigate the effects of miscegenation in Brazil. Based on the theoretical contributions of Maria Helena T. Machado (2007; 2010) and the series of photographs - composed of almost 200 images of Africans and mixed-race people produced by the Thayer Expedition to Brazil - this article shows that the defence of polygenism and the belief in racial degeneration, as well as the reluctance to accept the conception of Charles Darwin (1809-1882) on the origin of species through natural selection, were to some extent related to Agassiz's creationist conviction. However, the photographs were not released, and there was no corroboration concerning the degenerative effects of miscegenation
The Anti-Vaxx movement and scientific denialism from a Fleckian perspective
This article addresses the career, professional interests, and socio-political context in which Ludwik Fleck lived and left its contributions. Next, it focuses on the concepts of “thinking style” and “thought collective” that are part of his epistemology. The paper aims to use them and other elements of Fleck’s epistemology to understand the historical-cultural processes involved in scientific denialism concerning the vaccine. To do this, we will use some historical examples. We consider that the anti-vaccine movement consists of a group of people who predominantly belong to exoteric circles in political terms, dogmatically expressing the political interests of these groups. Protesters against the vaccine position consider themselves defenders of individual freedom, distrusting the public machine and understanding the state as a controlling and invasive entity.
Mariana Aparecida Bologna Soares de Andrade
A teoria dos equilíbrios pontuados como resolução do problema do ritmo evolutivo
The theory of punctuated equilibria, now 50-years-old, proposes that the origin of a species is such a rapid process that it seldom leaves evidence of transitional forms in the fossil record. It also establishes that, once formed, the new species undergoes minor to no morphological change during millions of years, until it generates a descendant species. This pattern would be caused by evolution taking place due to the geographic isolation of a small peripheral population, which would later replace the large ancestral population. The theory seems to solve the old problem of evolutionary tempo, that is, of defining what, if any, is the rate of biological change through the geological time. In approaching the problem, the theory dialogues with pre-Darwinian conceptions, such as those of Lamarck and Brocchi, as well as other Darwinian ones, such as Simpson’s and Haldane’s.
The book “The myths we live by” was published in 2004, by the British philosopher Mary Midgley (1919-2018) versing on scientific and moral philosophy. The book, a vast collection of her main articles, chapters, books and speeches, verse upon the presence of the myths in human life and the role that science occupies substituting the historical presence of religious beliefs. The present article aims to present and discuss the philosopher's thought, where she defends a scientific antireduccionist position, presents critics to the genecentric view of Richard Dawkins and pursues an integration of dualities such as mind-body and that of natural and human sciences. In Midgley's understanding, the dualistic approach that opposes objective/subjective views hinders the analysis of human phenomena. Her proposal is to reduce the conceptual separation between humans and other animals, understanding humanity as a continuum with nature. Her philosophy highlights that our ideas and interpretations of science are critical to our understanding of humanity, culture and the world that surrounds us.
Bats: the puzzling formation of a popular imagination that transformed prejudice into an environmental issue
The popular imagination is shaped by symbols, concepts, and memories that contribute to the formation of ideas, whether real or fictitious, within particular social groups. Often, these representations transcend real-world circumstances and become unfounded beliefs, resulting in prejudice. Among the animals most affected by the popular imagination are bats, which, despite their importance to the ecosystem, have their role obscured. A large part of the population considers them repulsive and terrifying because they are nocturnal, which associates them with the supernatural, with evil connotations. One of the most frequent associations is the relationship between bats and vampires, which dates back to the 16th century. Stories about blood-sucking animals in South and Central America produced between 1500 and 1900 may have contributed to this. On the other hand, some literary works that later turned into films reinforced this view. All of this threatens the existence of these animals. However, some films have contributed to a more positive perception of these mammals. More recently, although there are publications that present bats as transmitters of diseases, including the COVID-19 virus, there are several studies that do not corroborate this view and draw attention to the importance of preserving bats for various reasons, including ecological ones, and suggest forms of management that allow their preservation and coexistence with other animals, including humans.
William Harvey and blood circulation: a dialogue with his predecessors
William Harvey (1578-1656) presented his conceptions on blood circulation in Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis e sanguinis em animalibus (Anatomical study on the heart and blood movement in animals) in 1628. His most relevant work was the treatise De motu cordis, as it is better known, which resulted from more than nine years of observations and anatomical demonstrations in animals and humans. It greatly impacted the period's physicians, philosophers, and anatomists, generating several comments and criticisms. Harvey's ideas concerning blood circulation implied a break with the accepted knowledge of the time, based mainly on the conceptions of Claudio Galeno (129 AD- 216 AD). This article aims to present Harvey's ideas on the subject and discuss to what extent they represent a break with the ideas of his predecessors. This research corroborates the view defended by more recent historiography that knowledge about blood circulation has been constructed since Antiquity, although Harvey's work is prominent.
Edward Jenner and the vaccine inoculation
Edward Jenner (1749-1823) appears as one of the names related to vaccines. He performed a successful vaccination. He presented the vaccination procedures and results in several publications that made artificial immunization known in several countries. Initially, we present a brief introduction to the subject followed by the translation into Portuguese of one of these publications (Jenner, 1801). In very accessible language, he presented a brief account of the origins of vaccine injection and his investigations into cowpox. We hope that this translation can contribute to expanding knowledge about Jenner’s contributions to the field of immunology.
Copyright (c) 2023 Filosofia e História da Biologia https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0
Dobzhansky and the Brazilians from his letters and reminiscences
Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900-1975) had an important role in the origin and development of evolutionary genetics in Brazil. Not only in 1943, when he had been here for the first time, about six months, but also in other moments, for more extended periods, he was responsible for the formation of the first generation of Drosophila geneticists with an emphasis on evolution, who later originated groups of research in evolutionary genetics in their respective states/countries. His relationship with three members of the 1943 group deserves special attention. Dobzhansky's relationship with André Dreyfus (1897-1952), at the time the head of the Department of General Biology at the University of São Paulo, was always respectful and friendly; with Crodowaldo Pavan (1919-2009), Dobzhansky was highly affectionate, although he was worried about the future of his most beloved disciple; Dobzhansky's relationship with Antonio Brito da Cunha (1925-2019) was one of admiration for his general culture and sophistication, however, it was less intense than with Pavan. Moreover, several members of his research team, from 1943 to 1956 deserved comments in his reminiscences (not always positive) for the Oral History of Columbia University, for more than 40 pages.
The history of evolutionary genetics in Brazil
“Do Jaborandi”: the study of Brazilian plant productions by Joaquim Monteiro Caminhoá (1875)
Joaquim Monteiro Caminhoá (1836-1896) was an active scientist who worked in the Brazilian Empire, producing a wealth of knowledge published in magazines and annals. Among the articles he wrote is “Do Jaborandi”, published in Annaes Brasiliensis de Medicina in 1875. The present article aims to analyze the aforementioned work and its contribution to the emergence and consolidation of natural sciences in the 1800’s in our country. We will consider the authors cited by Caminhoá, who dedicated themselves to the study and classification of Jaborandi, the descriptions of the plant and its uses, among other aspects present in the scientific text, and reveal the author's contribution to the process mentioned above.
Revisiting Down Syndrome and its history
This work aims to present an overview of the path that led to the clarification of Down Syndrome, mainly from the second half of the twentieth century, concerning its characterization and aetiology as a genetic condition. We base ourselves on primary and secondary sources, considering the social aspects involved. This research showed how scientific knowledge about Down Syndrome was being unveiled and had an impact on society, even leading it to recognize individuals with the syndrome as a genetic condition and not as patients. We hope this study can contribute to understanding current ideas on the subject.