Khronos – Revista de História da Ciência (Khronos – Journal of the History of Science) is a biannual publication of the CHC – Interunit Centre for the History of Science at the University of São Paulo (founded in 1988) – focused on the history and epistemology of the natural sciences, life sciences, human sciences, technical sciences and related areas. The perspective is interdisciplinary and aims to stimulate interpretative possibilities of scientific and technical knowledge processes in their historical contexts. It publishes original research findings on topics ranging from Antiquity to the 21st century. In addition to these, it welcomes texts from scientists or institutions, as well as unpublished translations, reviews, news of research projects and other topics of interest to historians.
Universidade de São Paulo. Centro Interunidade de História da Ciência
Authors who publish in this journal agree to the following terms: Authors retain the copyright and grant the journal the right to first publication, with the work simultaneously licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License in the "Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International" (CC BY-NC 4.0) modality that allows sharing of the work with acknowledgment of authorship and initial publication in this magazine. Authors are authorized to assume additional contracts separately, for non-exclusive distribution of the version of the work published in this journal (eg, publishing in institutional repository or as a book chapter), with acknowledgment of authorship and initial publication in this journal. Authors are allowed and encouraged to publish and distribute their work online (eg in institutional repositories or on their personal page) at any point before or during the editorial process, as this can generate productive changes, as well as increase impact and citation of the published work (See The Effect of Open Access). Any doubts or complaints about copyright must be directed to the Editorial Board or qualify and express themselves in accordance with the guidelines of the Committee on Publications Ethics (COPE).
Descartes’s Geology, or How to Access the Earth’s Past Through Reason
This study aims to recover the significance of Cartesian thought for the History of Geology. To this end, Descartes’s thesis is examined from two perspectives: the emergence of a new way of interpreting the planet—referred to as the Terraqueous Globe—and the Cartesian Natural Philosophy within the broader context of seventeenth‑century mechanism. The analysis shows that Descartes presents a coherent theory, transforming the Terraqueous Globe into an object of scientific inquiry by interpreting it mechanically and attributing to it a past accessible to reason. Such a proposal did not go unnoticed by his contemporaries and was able to influence philosophers and naturalists in the decades that followed.
Copyright (c) 2026 Alexandre Henrique da Silva dos Santos https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Copyright (c) 2026 Gildo Magalhães https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Almachio Diniz and the scientific receptionof Nietzsche in Brazil (1900-1937)
This article analyzes the reception and appropriation of Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy in the work of Bahian intellectual Almachio Diniz (1880-1937). We argue that Diniz promoted an “epistemic conversion” of Nietzschean thought, translating fundamental concepts, such as the Übermensch, into the grammar of Ernst Haeckel's biological rationalism and monism. Through the analysis of works and articles published between 1902 and 1937, we demonstrate how Diniz integrated Nietzsche into a “mechanistic system of worlds,” bringing him closer to Herbert Spencer’s evolutionism and Darwinian nomology. The study highlights Diniz's network of intellectual sociability, marked by direct dialogue with French Germanist Henri Lichtenberger, which allows us to question the centrality of the “Recife School” in the introduction of Nietzscheanism in Brazil and propose a decentralized cartography of this reception. It also addresses the prophetic dimension of “divine madness” and Diniz's claim of priority in 1937, interpreted as a reaction to the institutional and intellectual erasures suffered by the author during his lifetime. It concludes that his reading, although marked by eugenic and deterministic biases typical of his time, found its place in systematizing Nietzsche as a scientific and legal reference, informing Brazilian scientific traditions in the early decades of the 20th century.
Copyright (c) 2026 Piero Detoni https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The ideologue movement and the project of Elements of Ideology by Destutt de Tracy: an introduction
The ideologue movement has been neglected within the history of philosophy. This article aims to fill, even if partially, this gap. To this end, firstly, we offer a contextualization of the ideologue movement and its relationship with encyclopedism and the philosophes. Secondly, we turn to the first generation of ideologues, establishing the background of the discussions of the revolutionary era. Thirdly, we point out some of the central ideas present in Destutt de Tracy's work, Elements of Ideology. We conclude with a reflection on the importance of recovering the principles and method of good thinking present in Tracy's work for today.
Destutt de Tracy; ideology; republicanism.
Copyright (c) 2026 Marta Nunes da Costa https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Book of Seeds: A Life-Size Guide To Six Hundred Species From Around The World, edited by Paul Smith
This review analyzes the book "The Book of Seeds: A Life-Size Guide to Six Hundred Species from Around the World", edited by American botanist Dr. Paul Smith, published by The University of Chicago Press.
Biodiversidade, Conservação, Ecologia de Sementes.
Copyright (c) 2026 Thiago Costa Ferreira https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Darwin, the descent of man and itsrelations with anthropomorphic apes
In the 1870s, Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) included man in his main study plan in the works The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871) and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). In these works, he discussed the origin of the habits of expressing emotions in humans and other animals, considering that they had a natural origin and were acquired gradually from forms considered inferior at the time. To corroborate this hypothesis, he sought to present several similarities between the expressions in humans and anthropoid apes, concluding that humans and other anthropomorphic apes of the New and Old Worlds shared a primitive, semi-human ancestor of the genus Homo. This paper aims to discuss Darwin’s main arguments and the evolutionary mechanisms involved in the process. Additionally, it examines the repercussion of these ideas, particularly within the scientific community of the time. This study concluded that some naturalists, such as Ernest Haeckel (1834-1919) and Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895), supported Darwin’s ideas on the subject, while others, including Giovanni Giuseppe Bianconi (1809-1878) and St. George J. Mivart (1827-1900), criticized them.
História da evolução; Darwin, Charles R.; Haeckel, Ernest.
Copyright (c) 2026 Fernando Moreno Castilho, Dra. Lilian Al-Chueyr Pereira Martins https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Copyright (c) 2025 Gildo Magalhães https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The study approaches the Noosphere as an evolutionary paradigm formulated by Teilhard de Chardin, Vladimir Vernadsky, and Edouard Leroy, later amplified by José Argüelles. The Noosphere — the “thinking layer” of the Earth — emerges from the interconnection between humanity’s collective consciousness and the planet itself. The work emphasizes the relevance of this concept for re-signifying humanity’s relationship with its own nature, suggesting that a global expansion of consciousness is essential for building the world to come.
Noosfera; Evolução; Consciência; Transição planetária, Novo tempo
Copyright (c) 2026 Nicky Klöpsch https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The role of philosophy in the constructionof science in Ancient Greece
In this article, we will discuss the emergence of science in Ancient Greek culture. We want to know if science is in fact a creation of Greek genius. Our focus will be on the work of the pre-Socratics, and by studying the thoughts of these philosophers, we can contemplate the powerful way these scholars explained nature. Some of their doctrines have parallels with our current science, and this demonstrates the profound capacity for speculation of these philosophers who, armed only with the reason of their intellect, managed to scrutinize the deepest principles of nature. If today we have at our disposal the most advanced scientific instruments, in the time of the pre-Socratics they only had their reason. They are the true creators of philosophy — and, in principle, of science, and this is the great merit of these great thinkers.
Copyright (c) 2026 Carlos Takiya, Luan Santos Lemos https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The teaching of History of Science at USP: a testimonial
Several years of teaching practice related to History of Science and Technology for undergraduate students at the University of São Paulo showed a way out to conquer non-acceptance barriers of human science students, who mistrusted themes they considered to be out of the academic pattern of History, as well as from the part of natural science students, who judged these were matters out of concern for their formation. Some positive results are related in such context, which might be interesting for other professors in this field.
The emergence of western science through pre-socratic philosophy: the belief in the intelligibility of the kosmos
What is the foundation that gives rise to Western science? What is the relationship between contemporary science and pre-Socratic philosophy? Why study pre-Socratic philosophers? Human beings, in order to avoid extinction from this world, find fulfillment in nature. Therefore, confronting, understanding, and theorizing physis was the starting point in this human endeavor that has spanned prehistory to the present day—this is what science is all about. The first to seek this understanding and, at the same time, theorize about this epistemological mission of finding fulfillment in nature were the Greeks in pre-Socratic philosophy. The main objective of this article, therefore, is to demonstrate that Western philosophy and science are all grounded in the pre-Socratic belief that the world we see is kosmos, not chaos. All pre-Socratic schools presuppose the idea that the world is something fully knowable and, therefore, capable of being interpreted by human intelligence. The methodology used was a bibliographic review of the fragments of the main pre-Socratic thinkers themselves, in addition to reading renowned authors in the study of this philosophy and published articles on the topic studied. The conclusion reached is that studying physics never ceases to be a timely study, as the works of these thinkers, even with the passing of centuries, continue to engage with and bring meaning to contemporary philosophy and science.
Copyright (c) 2025 Robson Pontes Custódio https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
National Program for the Development of Fusion Thermonuclear Energy
The growing concern about climate change has encouraged the adoption of low-carbon energy sources. In this context, nuclear energy – especially thermonuclear fusion – has gained international prominence. Brazil, although it has a predominantly renewable electricity matrix, has a relevant history in fusion research since the 1970s, with the construction of tokamaks such as the TBR-1 and ETE, led by institutions IFUSP and INPE. In 1981, the establishment of the National Program for Plasma Physics and Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion (PNFPFTC) represented an institutional milestone, promoting the training of human resources, structuring of laboratories, and international collaboration. However, the discontinuation of research groups, such as that of UNICAMP, reveals the fragility of national science policy in the face of the absence of stable and structuring programs. The creation of the National Fusion Network (2006) and the proposal of the National Fusion Program in 2021 aim to resume and consolidate these efforts. Globally, major projects such as ITER in Europe, EAST in China, and KSTAR in South Korea demonstrate that nuclear fusion research is an example of Large-Scale Science or Big Science, requiring international consortia and significant investment. Brazil, despite not being part of the ITER consortium, signed a Cooperation Agreement with EURATOM in 2009, enabling exchanges and technological development. Thus, the role of scientists as articulators of research toward policy and society is highlighted.
Copyright (c) 2025 Elza Kawakami-Savaget https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The polynomia in Mathematics: a historiographical and epistemological analysis of nomenclatural variations
This article investigates the phenomenon of polyonymy, a concept originally stemming from linguistic terminology, here applied to Mathematics to denote the existence of multiple names for the same concept, theorem, or method. Starting from the observation that such variations go beyond mere linguistic translation, the study examines their historical, social, cultural, and epistemological roots. Through the analysis of emblematic cases, such as the Briot-Ruffini/Horner method, the Viète/Girard relations, the Gauss/Ostrogradsky theorem, the quadratic formula (Bhaskara/Sridharacharya), and the Curve of Agnesi, all discussed in detail later, it is argued that mathematical nomenclature is not a neutral system of designation but rather a social, cultural, pedagogical, and historical construct. The discussion draws upon references from the History and Philosophy of Science, highlighting Stephen Mack Stigler’s Law of Eponymy, Thomas Samuel Kuhn’s contributions on scientific development, as well as specific historiographical analyses of Mathematics. Factors such as priority disputes, scientific nationalisms, translation errors, and the consolidation of distinct pedagogical traditions are examined. The article concludes that recognising and critically discussing polyonymy in teaching, learning, and research can enrich the understanding of Mathematics as a living science, historically situated and permeated by contingencies, moving beyond the notion of a monolithic body of knowledge disconnected from historical contexts. Additionally, pedagogical implications of this phenomenon are outlined, which may represent either an obstacle or an opportunity for teaching the history of Mathematics. The study adopts a qualitative and historiographical approach, focusing on emblematic cases. It is also based on documentary analysis of primary and secondary sources, including mathematical treatises, didactic manuals, and specialised works. This methodology aims to comprehend the historical and cultural contexts related to the attribution of names in Mathematics.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ricardo Angelo Monteiro Canale https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The 1918 influenza pandemic in Ponta Grossa, Paraná
The 1918 influenza pandemics reached global proportions, becoming one of the greatest catastrophes in modern history, intensified by the social transformations resulting from increasing globalization and the context of the First World War. This article analyzes the impacts of the influenza epidemic, also known as the Spanish flu, on the local context of the city of Ponta Grossa, in the state of Paraná. The investigation is based on representations conveyed by the Paraná press during the epidemic period, considering them as primary sources for reconstructing the social experiences of that time. The methodology adopted is evidential paradigm, aiming to understand, through local and regional manifestations, the perceptions, coping strategies, and difficulties faced in the face of the human and social losses caused by the 1918 pandemics.
Copyright (c) 2025 Isaias Holowate https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Paths of History and Memory of Electrification in the Amazon: Interview with Rosa Aires and Zilma Carvalho
The purpose of this work is to contribute to the memory of the Brazilian energy sector, specifically the history of electrification in northern Brazil, which represents a valuable part of our history, still permeated with chapters to be explored and studied in depth. Among these paths is the construction of the first hydroelectric plant in the Amazon, Itaperucu, conceived by Newton Carvalho in the 1930s. A project carried out during the transformations of the energy sector in the Estado Novo, located in the city of Carolina, State of Maranhão, its construction contributes to the understanding of the electrification process in the first half of the 20th century, the acquisition of parts/technology transfer in the interwar period, and energy expansion in the northern part of the country. To this end, an interview was conducted with Newton Carvalho's daughters, Rosa Aires and Zilma Carvalho, in April 2025, who shared documents and memories of this process, at a time when they are in the process of publishing a book on the subject.
Copyright (c) 2025 Andrey Martin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Exploring the Will: Methodological Challenges at the Intersection of Neuroscience and Philosophy of Mind
This article investigates the problem of will, highlighting the dichotomy between the empirical methods of neuroscience and the conceptual reflections of the philosophy of mind. Neuroscience has revealed, through empirical studies, how unconscious brain processes influence decision-making, challenging the traditional conception of free will (Libet, 1985; Haggard, 2008). In contrast, the philosophy of mind examines the epistemological and ethical implications of these findings, raising questions about autonomy and moral responsibility (Frankfurt, 1971; Mele, 1995). Our aim is to discuss the epistemological and methodological challenges arising from this intersection, proposing that integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches can enrich the understanding of human freedom, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary dialogue (Pereboom, 2001; Vihvelin, 2013).
Copyright (c) 2025 Weber Suhett de Oliveira, Dr. Francisco Rômulo Monte Ferreira https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The organization and teaching of History of Science in undergraduate courses at the Federal Institute of São Paulo (IFSP): structure, challenges and perception
This article aims to analyze the organization and teaching of the History of Science in undergraduate courses at the Federal Institute of São Paulo (IFSP). The research is based on documentary analysis of institutional regulations related to these disciplines, data collection on the teaching staff responsible for delivering them, and the application of a questionnaire to understand teachers’ perceptions of the field. The results indicate that, although half of the institution’s undergraduate programs include at least one course related to the History of Science, its consolidation still faces challenges, such as the absence of standardized criteria for faculty assignments and the low perceived value of the discipline among both teachers and students.
Copyright (c) 2025 Bernardo Soares Pereira https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The History of Science using Scientific Dissemination Texts: a review
In this article our main themes are the History of Science and Scientific Dissemination. The objective was to identify whether research in the area of ​​Science Teaching has used Scientific Dissemination Texts (TDC) as a resource to cover aspects of the History of Science. To this end, through a bibliographical review, we searched three Brazilian magazines that deal with the History of Science for productions with the descriptors “Scientific Dissemination Texts”. Three articles were selected for analysis, so that we came to the conclusion that there is still little research that addresses the topics mentioned, however the texts analyzed converge on the idea that TDC, especially when anchored in the History of Science, play an important role in training students who understand scientific advances as processes that constitute the human capacity for creation in social, cultural and historically situated contexts.
Copyright (c) 2025 Thaís Paz Callegaro, Dr. Judite Scherer Wenzel https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Freud’s Aphasias: notions of Functionality, Lesion, and Representation in Their Scientific Context
This study examines On the Conception of Aphasias (1891) with the aim of identifying the concepts of functionality, lesion, and representation within the scientific context of the 19th century. The work is situated within the psychiatric and neurological debates of the time, challenging the localizationist model—which posited the existence of fixed cerebral centers responsible for linguistic functions—and instead proposing a dynamic and integrated conception. Drawing on the contributions of Hughlings Jackson and Henry Charlton Bastian, Freud reformulates the understanding of the relationship between brain damage and language disorders, arguing that aphasias result from functional alterations in the linguistic apparatus rather than being direct consequences of circumscribed lesions. This article seeks to demonstrate how Freud’s monograph, while engaging with the prevailing medical tradition, also anticipates fundamental epistemological conditions for the later development of the theory of neuroses.
Copyright (c) 2025 Lucas Valiati https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Simplicity as Virtue: an analysis of Johnjoe McFadden's Ockham's Razor
The book by McFadden, a professor of molecular genetics at the University of Surrey, United Kingdom, comes at a good time and I consider it of special interest for the field of humanities. It is a good time because the field is full of complexity, relativism, plurality, postmodernism, etc., which take as values ​​the exact opposite of what is exposed in the book as the foundation of science. It is a good time, therefore, because simplicity is already seen as a defect, a vice, when in fact it is the greatest scientific virtue that we have been able to find in several thousand years, as the work argues. Ockham's razor, formulated by the Franciscan friar William of Ockham (1287 - 1347), states that entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity, encouraging the search for simpler explanations for the observed phenomena. McFadden's central argument that "less is more" is presented as a counterbalance to the conceptual overload of relativist and postmodern currents. The defense of assumption economy, based on both philosophical principles and probabilistic methodologies (such as the Bayesian approach), illustrates how science benefits from choosing less ad hoc theories. McFadden accurately traces Ockham's influence on the evolution of scientific thought, connecting it from the beginnings of astronomy in Mesopotamia to the advances in modern physics and biology. Thus, we can infer from the book that it is the key to what Bilate (2024) considered key to academia: finding an ethics for our academic production.
Copyright (c) 2025 Leonardo da Silva https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
On the affiliation of Freudian vocabulary to the vocabulary of neurology: the case of Übertragung
This article addresses the transition from neurology to psychoanalysis in Freud’s work through a historical-conceptual analysis of his vocabulary. First, we note words essential to Freudian theory in neurological texts, namely Übertragung, Erregung and Reiz. Then, comparing the Project for a Scientific Psychology (1895) with The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), we observe the permanence of neurological terms in Freud’s psychoanalytic vocabulary, but this involves a series of lexical shifts: in psychoanalysis, neurophysiological terms maintain their functionalist meaning, rather than their anatomical one, which marks the epistemological specificity of Freud’s scientific enterprise.
Copyright (c) 2025 Pedro Fernandez de Souza https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Invaluable life experience must be passed on to generations! And after all, it’s not necessary, as turned out, todevour own brethren for this purpose!
This author's work briefly summarizes most of currently available world practice on memory transplantation from adult to embryo. For, as shown by the experiments, nowdays precisely it is the only, in principle, effective way to gain the immortality so desired by many. And if, moreover, we take into account that the fetus itself also affects the neurons implanted from the outside in a rejuvenating way, it becomes clear that such a relaying of memory from generation to generation, in fact, does not know any foreseeable boundaries! Although, on the other hand, it is no secret to anyone that a lot will here depend on the exact determination of the sojourn point of the individual "Self" too.
Law os exponencial growth of anti-aging costs
Copyright (c) 2025 Emir Ashursky https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Two temporary plans of the Protomedicato Board for pharmacy in Portugal and its territories (1800)
The main objective of this article is to analyze two provisional plans drawn up by the Protomedicato Board in 1800, which played a fundamental role in regulating pharmaceutical activity in Portugal and its overseas territories, recognizing pharmacy as a formalized practice integrated into public health. Aligning with recent debates in pharmacy historiography, which seeks to revisit pharmaceutical legislation from the perspective of its practical application, its impact on public health, and its relationship with other forms of medical knowledge regulation, this study contributes to the effort to deepen the investigation of two essential documents for pharmaceutical activity in Portugal and its overseas territories between the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The article is structured in two parts: the first presents a brief overview of the regulatory and supervisory context of pharmaceutical activity before the Protomedicato Board; the second examines the creation of the Protomedicato Board and the legislative framework it produced, with special emphasis on the provisional plans of 1800. To support future research, the article also includes the full transcription of these documents, as both had not yet been published together.
Copyright (c) 2025 Amanda Peruchi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The origins of externalism in the History of Science:Boris Hessen and the application of dialectical materialism to Newton in defense of Einstein and Bohr
The article “The Social and Economic Roots of Newton’s Principia”, presented by the Soviet physicist Boris Hessen (1893–1936) at the II International Congress of the History of Science and Technology (1931) in London, inaugurated the approach known as externalism in the History of Science by applying dialectical materialism to analyze Isaac Newton’s (1643–1727) theories. By asserting that the intellectual production of the British physicist had origins in the technical challenges posed by the emerging bourgeois economy, Hessen was advocating for the Theory of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics, both under attack in the Soviet Union, being labeled as idealist and “bourgeois science”.
Copyright (c) 2025 Renato Kenniti Silvestre Agata https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Reevaluating evolutionary paradigms: The impact of Darwin's competitive vision and Humboldt'sholistic approach on modern ecology
This article critically examines the contrasting perspectives of Charles Darwin and Alexander von Humboldt on evolution and the interconnectedness of nature, arguing that Darwin's emphasis on competition has contributed to contemporary ecological crises. While Darwin's theory of natural selection revolutionized biological sciences by focusing on individual competition and the "survival of the fittest," it reflects the competitive and anthropocentric values of Victorian England. In contrast, Humboldt's holistic vision, articulated in his work Kosmos, emphasizes the intricate interdependencies within ecosystems, anticipating modern ecological principles. By exploring the cultural contexts that shaped their theories, this article contends that the widespread adoption of Darwin's competitive framework has fostered exploitative attitudes toward nature, legitimizing environmental degradation and contributing to the current ecological crisis. Embracing Humboldt's interconnected perspective is posited as essential for addressing ecological catastrophes by promoting sustainable practices and fostering a more harmonious relationship with the natural world.
Copyright (c) 2025 Richard Montgomery https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Science and Reflection with Andrew Knoll: A Review of the Book "A Brief History of the Earth"
The review presents A Brief History of the Earth: 4 Billion Years in 8 Chapters, by Andrew H. Knoll, as an indispensable work for those seeking to understand the trajectory of the planet through an accessible and thought-provoking narrative, while reflecting on current environmental challenges. Knoll, a renowned professor of Natural History at Harvard and a world reference in Paleontology and Geology, applies his vast academic and field experience to explore the formation and evolution of the Earth, translating complex concepts and processes into a clear and fluid language. With the support of images and engaging examples, the author captivates readers of different levels of knowledge. The work is structured in eight chapters that range from the initial chemical composition of the planet to the impact of human action in the modern era, connecting geological and biological events in a dynamic narrative.
Copyright (c) 2025 Emilly Kelen Palácios Mendes Nascimento, Marcelo Durão Rodrigues da Cunha https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Development of Photography as a Scientific Instrument in the 19th Century
Photography has been extensively used by scholars from various fields as a relevant documentary source for knowledge production. However, few academic studies have addressed a particular type of photography: scientific photography. Sometimes approached in its technical aspects, sometimes in its relation to art, we understand that an analysis of this source as a historical document capable of providing pertinent information to the historian's craft is necessary and essential. Through a specific field of study, Astronomy, we seek to understand how photography was employed for the production of scientific data through the creation and use of these images, noting that photography’s reception in this field was gradual and non-linear, depending on innovations in the photographic process that allowed for adequate recording.
Copyright (c) 2025 Rafael Luis dos Santos Dall'olio https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Copyright (c) 2024 Gildo Magalhães https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The State Research Support Foundations and their support for the development of Artificial Intelligence in their states
The objective of this article is to present the efforts to promote science, technolo-gy, and innovation (S,T&I) carried out by state public funding entities known as Research Support Foundations (FAPs), which are part of the Brazilian National System of Science, Technology, and Innovation (SNCTI), as defined in the Legal Framework for Science, Technology, and Innovation (BRAZIL, 2018). Methodologically, we sought information about each FAP from their statutes and internal regulations to better understand their functioning and objectives as defined by the legislator of each state. Additionally, we collected public notices and calls available on the online portals of the respective Research Support Foundations (FAPs) over the last 10 years (2013-2023), aiming to determine whether there is synergy among their actions. In other words, despite being limited in their activities within their respective states and addressing specific demands, we explored the presence of cooperation. Given that FAPs support projects in various fields of knowledge, we chose to focus on Artificial Intelligence in our investigation due to its importance in the ongoing economic development process worldwide. A secondary objective is to correlate playful aspects with technological advances and economic development, considering the subjectivity the topic entails and the necessary rapprochement between intellectuals and researchers, with a consequent elimination of barriers between so-called hard science and soft science.
Copyright (c) 2024 Marcelo Corenza https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0