Khronos – Revista de História da Ciência (Khronos – Journal of the History of Science) is a biannual publication of the CHC – Interunit Centre for the History of Science at the University of São Paulo (founded in 1988) – focused on the history and epistemology of the natural sciences, life sciences, human sciences, technical sciences and related areas. The perspective is interdisciplinary and aims to stimulate interpretative possibilities of scientific and technical knowledge processes in their historical contexts. It publishes original research findings on topics ranging from Antiquity to the 21st century. In addition to these, it welcomes texts from scientists or institutions, as well as unpublished translations, reviews, news of research projects and other topics of interest to historians.
Universidade de São Paulo. Centro Interunidade de História da Ciência
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In Memoriam: Julio Roberto Katinsky (1932-2026)
O falecimento recente de Julio Roberto Katinsky foi ocasião de justas homenagens acadêmicas por conta de sua atuação como docente. Formado em 1957 na FAU, Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Universidade de São Paulo, distinguiu-se na carreira de professor da mesma instituição, na qual ministrou aulas de História da Arquitetura e História da Técnica no Brasil, tendo chegado a Professor Titular e Diretor da Faculdade. Também foi celebrado por seus projetos de arquitetura, levados a cabo por seu escritório particular, que incluíram sua espaçosa e acolhedora residência no Sumaré. Sua produção bibliográfica no campo da arquitetura não foi numerosa, mas registra uma preocupação com o desenho industrial, entendido na acepção designada pela palavra design, com o sentido amplo de “projeto”. Sua ligação com empreendimentos ligados à industrialização de São Paulo ficou marcada pela colaboração com projetos arquitetônicos para usinas e prédios da Centrais Elétricas de São Paulo (CESP), de 1967 a 1982, e para a Light, de 1973 a 1979. No entanto, pouco se lembrou a sua contribuição à História da Ciência e da Técnica, exercida de forma pontual, mas fundamental para esse campo na USP.
Metamorphosis through the pen of a 17th-century German woman: the art and science of Maria Sibylla Merian
This essay aims to initiate an interpretive analysis of the life and work of a woman—an artist and naturalist—from the 17th and 18th centuries: Maria Sibylla Merian (1647–1717). A review of the literature reveals that the region known today as Germany lacked a centralized state at that time. During this period of transition from a feudal to a modern state, women did not enjoy much freedom. However, benefiting from a highly favorable family environment, Maria Sibylla was able to develop her artistic and scientific talents; in the 17th century, she published two notable works—*Neües Blumenbuch* and *Der Raupen wunderbare Verwandelung und sonderbare Blumennhrung*—featuring images derived from meticulous observation of insect life cycles and a process that had been little studied until then: metamorphosis.
“My dear Sir...”: Review of the book Letters between Charles Darwin and Fritz Müller
This review analyzes the book Cartas entre Fritz Müller e Charles Darwin (Letters between Fritz Müller and Charles Darwin), in which the correspondence exchanged between Charles Darwin and the German naturalist Fritz Müller from 1865 to 1882 is translated into Portuguese in its entirety for the first time. The book was edited and organized by historian and researcher Ana Maria Ludwig Moraes.
Quipus, Writing, and Mathematics: Historiographical Debates on the Recording Systems of the Inca Empire
Khipus stretch Western boundaries between mathematics, writing, and memory. This article investigates how these categories forged khipus as scientific objects from the 16th to 21st century. Countering a linear discovery narrative, it argues that interpretive oscillations reflect epistemological mutations, analyzed via Grattan-Guinness’s heritage/history distinction and the historical ontology of Hacking and Daston. The mapping reveals how each era reconfigured the cords, from fiscal tools to Andean writing candidates showing, that these readings form competing research programs whose tensions remain productively open.
Historiographical Trajectory of Artificial Intelligence: contexts and influences
The history of artificial intelligence (AI) spans various contexts, including culture, science, businesses, and government. Over time, theoretical advances have guided technological research, propelling development in six dimensions: capture, representation, storage, processing, modeling, and action. The integration of AI into society has entailed changes influenced by these four contexts. From myths and alchemy to the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of research institutions, AI has traversed cultures and commercial interests, shaping its course throughout history. This work provides an analysis of the trajectory of artificial intelligence, highlighting significant contributions that have shaped its development, aiming to identify the interests that have directed it. Understanding such interests can facilitate a technological and socio-political understanding over time, demystifying artificial intelligence as a recent subject and enabling critical analyses of its history.
A historical perspective of a myxomycetologist in Northeast Brazil: Maria de Fátima de Andrade Bezerra (1965 – 2023+)
Myxomycetology is a relatively young science compared to others. It has been developing in Northeast Brazil, expanding knowledge in various areas. The training of researchers has proven to be the main factor in consolidating academic and scientific work. This publication aims to present the history of a myxomycetologist who helped a generation of researchers. To this end, a broad bibliographic and documentary review was conducted. The initiatives, collaborations, and scientific production of Dr. Maria de Fátima de Andrade Bezerra, which contributed to the generation of professors and researchers in the country, became noteworthy.
Characterization of discourse in Brazilian biological scientific production at the turn of the twentieth century: analyses based on academic research
This study focuses on Brazilian scientific production within the field of History and Philosophy of Biology (HPB). Drawing on sources from the Brazilian Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (BDTD) over ten years, we identify statements composing the discourse on Brazilian biological production at the turn of the nineteenth century, using Foucauldian discourse analysis. The material was divided into two discursive axes: European and Brazilian naturalists. Results highlight statements on the field/cabinet dichotomy, evolutionary theory, research objectives, and forms of representation, as well as the intertwining of Biology and Medicine, European epistemological influence, and eugenic discourse
The “Memoir on the Transfer of Cemeteries”: Critical Introduction and Translation of an Eighteenth-Century Medical Manuscript
The article presents the first-ever translation of Mémoire concernant le changement des cimetières, a manuscript by the physician and encyclopedist Jean-Joseph Ménuret. The text provides insight into the cognitive, social, and cultural issues involved in the attempt to relocate a cemetery outside the walls of a small town in inland France during the eighteenth century. This source allows for a more detailed understanding of the gradual process of cemetery secularization and the role played by medicine in it.
Between scientific education and processes of (re)socialization: contributions from Fleckian Epistemology and the History of Science to a critical approach to the nature of Science in Chemistry Education in prisons
This study analyzes the potential contributions of Ludwik Fleck’s epistemology to Chemistry teaching in contexts of deprivation of liberty, articulating it with the History of Science and discussions on the Nature of Science. It is based on the assumption that science education, when understood beyond the mere transmission of content, may constitute a space for critical education, the expansion of students’ interpretive frameworks, and the strengthening of formative processes associated with resocialization. The research is qualitative and interpretive in nature and was developed as an educational case study in a prison unit in the state of Espírito Santo, Brazil, within the context of Youth and Adult Education. As a didactic strategy, an Episode from the History of Chemistry centered on alchemy was designed and implemented in order to problematize the historical and social construction of scientific knowledge. The data were produced through students’ discursive interactions during the activity and analyzed in light of epistemological categories for the Nature of Science inspired by Fleck. The results indicate that the approach fostered the development of more critical understandings of science, the overcoming of less elaborated conceptions about alchemy, and the recognition of scientific knowledge as a historically, socially, and culturally situated production. Students’ interactions also revealed movements toward expanding ways of interpreting science, society, and their own personal trajectories, suggesting that science education in contexts of deprivation of liberty may contribute to resocialization processes mediated by the reconstruction of ways of thinking. It is concluded that the articulation between Fleckian epistemology, History of Science, and Chemistry teaching constitutes a fruitful framework for the development of critical educational practices related to the Nature of Science and socially contextualized practices within prison education.
Descartes’s Geology, or How to Access the Earth’s Past Through Reason
This study aims to recover the significance of Cartesian thought for the History of Geology. To this end, Descartes’s thesis is examined from two perspectives: the emergence of a new way of interpreting the planet—referred to as the Terraqueous Globe—and the Cartesian Natural Philosophy within the broader context of seventeenth‑century mechanism. The analysis shows that Descartes presents a coherent theory, transforming the Terraqueous Globe into an object of scientific inquiry by interpreting it mechanically and attributing to it a past accessible to reason. Such a proposal did not go unnoticed by his contemporaries and was able to influence philosophers and naturalists in the decades that followed.
Copyright (c) 2026 Alexandre Henrique da Silva dos Santos https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Copyright (c) 2026 Gildo Magalhães https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Almachio Diniz and the scientific receptionof Nietzsche in Brazil (1900-1937)
This article analyzes the reception and appropriation of Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy in the work of Bahian intellectual Almachio Diniz (1880-1937). We argue that Diniz promoted an “epistemic conversion” of Nietzschean thought, translating fundamental concepts, such as the Übermensch, into the grammar of Ernst Haeckel's biological rationalism and monism. Through the analysis of works and articles published between 1902 and 1937, we demonstrate how Diniz integrated Nietzsche into a “mechanistic system of worlds,” bringing him closer to Herbert Spencer’s evolutionism and Darwinian nomology. The study highlights Diniz's network of intellectual sociability, marked by direct dialogue with French Germanist Henri Lichtenberger, which allows us to question the centrality of the “Recife School” in the introduction of Nietzscheanism in Brazil and propose a decentralized cartography of this reception. It also addresses the prophetic dimension of “divine madness” and Diniz's claim of priority in 1937, interpreted as a reaction to the institutional and intellectual erasures suffered by the author during his lifetime. It concludes that his reading, although marked by eugenic and deterministic biases typical of his time, found its place in systematizing Nietzsche as a scientific and legal reference, informing Brazilian scientific traditions in the early decades of the 20th century.
Copyright (c) 2026 Piero Detoni https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The ideologue movement and the project of Elements of Ideology by Destutt de Tracy: an introduction
The ideologue movement has been neglected within the history of philosophy. This article aims to fill, even if partially, this gap. To this end, firstly, we offer a contextualization of the ideologue movement and its relationship with encyclopedism and the philosophes. Secondly, we turn to the first generation of ideologues, establishing the background of the discussions of the revolutionary era. Thirdly, we point out some of the central ideas present in Destutt de Tracy's work, Elements of Ideology. We conclude with a reflection on the importance of recovering the principles and method of good thinking present in Tracy's work for today.
Copyright (c) 2026 Marta Nunes da Costa https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The Book of Seeds: A Life-Size Guide To Six Hundred Species From Around The World, edited by Paul Smith
This review analyzes the book "The Book of Seeds: A Life-Size Guide to Six Hundred Species from Around the World", edited by American botanist Dr. Paul Smith, published by The University of Chicago Press.
Copyright (c) 2026 Thiago Costa Ferreira https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Darwin, the descent of man and itsrelations with anthropomorphic apes
In the 1870s, Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) included man in his main study plan in the works The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871) and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). In these works, he discussed the origin of the habits of expressing emotions in humans and other animals, considering that they had a natural origin and were acquired gradually from forms considered inferior at the time. To corroborate this hypothesis, he sought to present several similarities between the expressions in humans and anthropoid apes, concluding that humans and other anthropomorphic apes of the New and Old Worlds shared a primitive, semi-human ancestor of the genus Homo. This paper aims to discuss Darwin’s main arguments and the evolutionary mechanisms involved in the process. Additionally, it examines the repercussion of these ideas, particularly within the scientific community of the time. This study concluded that some naturalists, such as Ernest Haeckel (1834-1919) and Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895), supported Darwin’s ideas on the subject, while others, including Giovanni Giuseppe Bianconi (1809-1878) and St. George J. Mivart (1827-1900), criticized them.
Copyright (c) 2026 Fernando Moreno Castilho, Dra. Lilian Al-Chueyr Pereira Martins https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Copyright (c) 2025 Gildo Magalhães https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Noosphere in a New Era: The Evolutionary Paradigm Through the Contributions of Teilhard de Chardin, Vladimir Vernadsky, and José Argüelles.
The study approaches the Noosphere as an evolutionary paradigm formulated by Teilhard de Chardin, Vladimir Vernadsky, and Edouard Leroy, later amplified by José Argüelles. The Noosphere — the “thinking layer” of the Earth — emerges from the interconnection between humanity’s collective consciousness and the planet itself. The work emphasizes the relevance of this concept for re-signifying humanity’s relationship with its own nature, suggesting that a global expansion of consciousness is essential for building the world to come.
Copyright (c) 2026 Nicky Klöpsch https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The role of philosophy in the constructionof science in Ancient Greece
In this article, we will discuss the emergence of science in Ancient Greek culture. We want to know if science is in fact a creation of Greek genius. Our focus will be on the work of the pre-Socratics, and by studying the thoughts of these philosophers, we can contemplate the powerful way these scholars explained nature. Some of their doctrines have parallels with our current science, and this demonstrates the profound capacity for speculation of these philosophers who, armed only with the reason of their intellect, managed to scrutinize the deepest principles of nature. If today we have at our disposal the most advanced scientific instruments, in the time of the pre-Socratics they only had their reason. They are the true creators of philosophy — and, in principle, of science, and this is the great merit of these great thinkers.
Copyright (c) 2026 Carlos Takiya, Luan Santos Lemos https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The teaching of History of Science at USP: a testimonial
Several years of teaching practice related to History of Science and Technology for undergraduate students at the University of São Paulo showed a way out to conquer non-acceptance barriers of human science students, who mistrusted themes they considered to be out of the academic pattern of History, as well as from the part of natural science students, who judged these were matters out of concern for their formation. Some positive results are related in such context, which might be interesting for other professors in this field.
The emergence of western science through pre-socratic philosophy: the belief in the intelligibility of the kosmos
What is the foundation that gives rise to Western science? What is the relationship between contemporary science and pre-Socratic philosophy? Why study pre-Socratic philosophers? Human beings, in order to avoid extinction from this world, find fulfillment in nature. Therefore, confronting, understanding, and theorizing physis was the starting point in this human endeavor that has spanned prehistory to the present day—this is what science is all about. The first to seek this understanding and, at the same time, theorize about this epistemological mission of finding fulfillment in nature were the Greeks in pre-Socratic philosophy. The main objective of this article, therefore, is to demonstrate that Western philosophy and science are all grounded in the pre-Socratic belief that the world we see is kosmos, not chaos. All pre-Socratic schools presuppose the idea that the world is something fully knowable and, therefore, capable of being interpreted by human intelligence. The methodology used was a bibliographic review of the fragments of the main pre-Socratic thinkers themselves, in addition to reading renowned authors in the study of this philosophy and published articles on the topic studied. The conclusion reached is that studying physics never ceases to be a timely study, as the works of these thinkers, even with the passing of centuries, continue to engage with and bring meaning to contemporary philosophy and science.
Copyright (c) 2025 Robson Pontes Custódio https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
National Program for the Development of Fusion Thermonuclear Energy
The growing concern about climate change has encouraged the adoption of low-carbon energy sources. In this context, nuclear energy – especially thermonuclear fusion – has gained international prominence. Brazil, although it has a predominantly renewable electricity matrix, has a relevant history in fusion research since the 1970s, with the construction of tokamaks such as the TBR-1 and ETE, led by institutions IFUSP and INPE. In 1981, the establishment of the National Program for Plasma Physics and Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion (PNFPFTC) represented an institutional milestone, promoting the training of human resources, structuring of laboratories, and international collaboration. However, the discontinuation of research groups, such as that of UNICAMP, reveals the fragility of national science policy in the face of the absence of stable and structuring programs. The creation of the National Fusion Network (2006) and the proposal of the National Fusion Program in 2021 aim to resume and consolidate these efforts. Globally, major projects such as ITER in Europe, EAST in China, and KSTAR in South Korea demonstrate that nuclear fusion research is an example of Large-Scale Science or Big Science, requiring international consortia and significant investment. Brazil, despite not being part of the ITER consortium, signed a Cooperation Agreement with EURATOM in 2009, enabling exchanges and technological development. Thus, the role of scientists as articulators of research toward policy and society is highlighted.
Copyright (c) 2025 Elza Kawakami-Savaget https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The polynomia in Mathematics: a historiographical and epistemological analysis of nomenclatural variations
This article investigates the phenomenon of polyonymy, a concept originally stemming from linguistic terminology, here applied to Mathematics to denote the existence of multiple names for the same concept, theorem, or method. Starting from the observation that such variations go beyond mere linguistic translation, the study examines their historical, social, cultural, and epistemological roots. Through the analysis of emblematic cases, such as the Briot-Ruffini/Horner method, the Viète/Girard relations, the Gauss/Ostrogradsky theorem, the quadratic formula (Bhaskara/Sridharacharya), and the Curve of Agnesi, all discussed in detail later, it is argued that mathematical nomenclature is not a neutral system of designation but rather a social, cultural, pedagogical, and historical construct. The discussion draws upon references from the History and Philosophy of Science, highlighting Stephen Mack Stigler’s Law of Eponymy, Thomas Samuel Kuhn’s contributions on scientific development, as well as specific historiographical analyses of Mathematics. Factors such as priority disputes, scientific nationalisms, translation errors, and the consolidation of distinct pedagogical traditions are examined. The article concludes that recognising and critically discussing polyonymy in teaching, learning, and research can enrich the understanding of Mathematics as a living science, historically situated and permeated by contingencies, moving beyond the notion of a monolithic body of knowledge disconnected from historical contexts. Additionally, pedagogical implications of this phenomenon are outlined, which may represent either an obstacle or an opportunity for teaching the history of Mathematics. The study adopts a qualitative and historiographical approach, focusing on emblematic cases. It is also based on documentary analysis of primary and secondary sources, including mathematical treatises, didactic manuals, and specialised works. This methodology aims to comprehend the historical and cultural contexts related to the attribution of names in Mathematics.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ricardo Angelo Monteiro Canale https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The 1918 influenza pandemic in Ponta Grossa, Paraná
The 1918 influenza pandemics reached global proportions, becoming one of the greatest catastrophes in modern history, intensified by the social transformations resulting from increasing globalization and the context of the First World War. This article analyzes the impacts of the influenza epidemic, also known as the Spanish flu, on the local context of the city of Ponta Grossa, in the state of Paraná. The investigation is based on representations conveyed by the Paraná press during the epidemic period, considering them as primary sources for reconstructing the social experiences of that time. The methodology adopted is evidential paradigm, aiming to understand, through local and regional manifestations, the perceptions, coping strategies, and difficulties faced in the face of the human and social losses caused by the 1918 pandemics.
Copyright (c) 2025 Isaias Holowate https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Paths of History and Memory of Electrification in the Amazon: Interview with Rosa Aires and Zilma Carvalho
The purpose of this work is to contribute to the memory of the Brazilian energy sector, specifically the history of electrification in northern Brazil, which represents a valuable part of our history, still permeated with chapters to be explored and studied in depth. Among these paths is the construction of the first hydroelectric plant in the Amazon, Itaperucu, conceived by Newton Carvalho in the 1930s. A project carried out during the transformations of the energy sector in the Estado Novo, located in the city of Carolina, State of Maranhão, its construction contributes to the understanding of the electrification process in the first half of the 20th century, the acquisition of parts/technology transfer in the interwar period, and energy expansion in the northern part of the country. To this end, an interview was conducted with Newton Carvalho's daughters, Rosa Aires and Zilma Carvalho, in April 2025, who shared documents and memories of this process, at a time when they are in the process of publishing a book on the subject.
Copyright (c) 2025 Andrey Martin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Exploring the Will: Methodological Challenges at the Intersection of Neuroscience and Philosophy of Mind
This article investigates the problem of will, highlighting the dichotomy between the empirical methods of neuroscience and the conceptual reflections of the philosophy of mind. Neuroscience has revealed, through empirical studies, how unconscious brain processes influence decision-making, challenging the traditional conception of free will (Libet, 1985; Haggard, 2008). In contrast, the philosophy of mind examines the epistemological and ethical implications of these findings, raising questions about autonomy and moral responsibility (Frankfurt, 1971; Mele, 1995). Our aim is to discuss the epistemological and methodological challenges arising from this intersection, proposing that integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches can enrich the understanding of human freedom, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary dialogue (Pereboom, 2001; Vihvelin, 2013).
Copyright (c) 2025 Weber Suhett de Oliveira, Dr. Francisco Rômulo Monte Ferreira https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The organization and teaching of History of Science in undergraduate courses at the Federal Institute of São Paulo (IFSP): structure, challenges and perception
This article aims to analyze the organization and teaching of the History of Science in undergraduate courses at the Federal Institute of São Paulo (IFSP). The research is based on documentary analysis of institutional regulations related to these disciplines, data collection on the teaching staff responsible for delivering them, and the application of a questionnaire to understand teachers’ perceptions of the field. The results indicate that, although half of the institution’s undergraduate programs include at least one course related to the History of Science, its consolidation still faces challenges, such as the absence of standardized criteria for faculty assignments and the low perceived value of the discipline among both teachers and students.
Copyright (c) 2025 Bernardo Soares Pereira https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
The History of Science using Scientific Dissemination Texts: a review
In this article our main themes are the History of Science and Scientific Dissemination. The objective was to identify whether research in the area of ​​Science Teaching has used Scientific Dissemination Texts (TDC) as a resource to cover aspects of the History of Science. To this end, through a bibliographical review, we searched three Brazilian magazines that deal with the History of Science for productions with the descriptors “Scientific Dissemination Texts”. Three articles were selected for analysis, so that we came to the conclusion that there is still little research that addresses the topics mentioned, however the texts analyzed converge on the idea that TDC, especially when anchored in the History of Science, play an important role in training students who understand scientific advances as processes that constitute the human capacity for creation in social, cultural and historically situated contexts.
Copyright (c) 2025 Thaís Paz Callegaro, Dr. Judite Scherer Wenzel https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0
Freud’s Aphasias: notions of Functionality, Lesion, and Representation in Their Scientific Context
This study examines On the Conception of Aphasias (1891) with the aim of identifying the concepts of functionality, lesion, and representation within the scientific context of the 19th century. The work is situated within the psychiatric and neurological debates of the time, challenging the localizationist model—which posited the existence of fixed cerebral centers responsible for linguistic functions—and instead proposing a dynamic and integrated conception. Drawing on the contributions of Hughlings Jackson and Henry Charlton Bastian, Freud reformulates the understanding of the relationship between brain damage and language disorders, arguing that aphasias result from functional alterations in the linguistic apparatus rather than being direct consequences of circumscribed lesions. This article seeks to demonstrate how Freud’s monograph, while engaging with the prevailing medical tradition, also anticipates fundamental epistemological conditions for the later development of the theory of neuroses.
Copyright (c) 2025 Lucas Valiati https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0