Habitat risk assessment of fragmented mangal ecosystem using InVEST models: a case study in San Fernando City, La Union, Philippines
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1590/Keywords:
Management strategies, Mangroves, Remote Sensing, Stressors, VulnerabilityAbstract
La Union is renowned as one of the major tourist destinations in the Philippines, primarily the City of San Fernando,
which houses a vast stretch of pristine coastal and wetland ecosystem that includes tropical beach and lush
mangrove forests. However, despite the beneficial services mangal ecosystem provides for the coastal communities
of San Fernando City, La Union, they remain vulnerable to risk caused by anthropogenic stressors in exchange for
growing economic development. To ascertain this observation in the region, it is urgent that an evidence-based
decision framework for the habitat risk of the remaining patches of the mangal ecosystem in smaller districts
(barangays) of the whole municipality be established. Hence, this study was conceived by employing a mangal
assessment based on exposure and consequence scores from anthropogenic stressors using the InVEST Habitat
Risk Assessment model. Key findings showed the following: (1) the business-as-usual scenario configures a high
cumulative risk due to road structures and other concrete pavements, (2) in a controlled and protected scenario,
the mangal ecosystem will likely shift from medium to low risk, and (3) a reduction in cumulative risk for the mangal
ecosystem is expected under public-private partnership intervention scenario. Nevertheless, the remaining
sites in which the mangal ecosystem thrives must be targeted for intense active intervention and management
from private and public stakeholders. This study serves as the basis for data-driven policies, highlighting
the importance of adequately implementing management strategies to protect a critical wetland habitat.
Downloads
References
Aduana-Alcantara, A. A., Almadrones-Reyes, K. J. &
Dagamac, N. H. A. 2023. Mangrove Land Suitability
Assessment Using Weighted Linear Combination:
A Case Study of La Union Province Coastline,
Philippines. Journal of Sustainability and Environmental
Management, 2(2), 83–91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/
josem.v2i2.55200
Almadrones-Reyes, K. J. & Dagamac, N. H. A. 2023.
Land-use/land cover change and land surface
temperature in Metropolitan Manila, Philippines using
landsat imagery. GeoJournal, 88(2), 1415–1426.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-022-10701-9
Anca, J. S., Dionisio, D., Dizon, R., & Hadap, K.
Investigation on the longshore transport
mechanism along San Fernando Bay, La Union
(Bachelor of Science). Manila: De La Salle University.
Available from: https://animorepository.dlsu.edu.ph/
etd_bachelors/6507. Access date: 2025 May 17.
Arkema, K. K., Verutes, G., Bernhardt, J. R.,
Clarke, C., Rosado, S., Canto, M., Wood, S. A.,
Ruckelshaus, M., Rosenthal, A., McField, M. &
De Zegher, J. 2014. Assessing habitat risk from
human activities to inform coastal and Marine Spatial
Planning: A demonstration in Belize. Environmental
Research Letters, 9(11), 114016. DOI: https://doi.org/
1088/1748-9326/9/11/114016
Awuku-Sowah, E. M., Graham, N. A. J. & Watson, N. 2022.
Investigating mangrove-human health relationships:
A review of recently reported physiological
benefits. Dialogues in Health, 1, 100059. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dialog.2022.100059
Balaoro-Banzuela, R. C., Ocenar-Bautista, C. E.,
Buebos-Esteve, D. E., Claudio-Paragas, C. Y., LimboDizon, J. E., & Dagamac, N. H. A. 2023. Rapid diversity
assessment of litter myxomycete assemblages in the
upland and coastal terrains of San Fernando City,
La Union, Philippines. Biodiversitas, 24(5). 2877–2886
DOI: https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d240542
Bennett, V. J. 2017. Effects of road density and pattern
on the conservation of species and biodiversity.
Current Landscape Ecology Reports, 2(1), 1–11. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40823-017-0020-6
Bryan-Brown, D. N., Connolly, R. M., Richards, D. R.,
Adame, F., Friess, D. A., & Brown, C. J. 2020. Global
trends in mangrove forest fragmentation. Scientific
Reports, 10(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-
-63880-1
Camacho, L. D., Gevaña, D. T., Sabino, L. L.,
Ruzol, C. D., Garcia, J. E., Camacho, A. C. D.,
Oo, T. N., Maung, A. C., Saxena, K. G., Liang, L.,
Yiu, E. & Takeuchi, K. 2020. Sustainable mangrove
rehabilitation: Lessons and insights from communitybased management in the Philippines and Myanmar.
APN Science Bulletin, 10(1). DOI: https://doi.org/
30852/sb.2020.946
Cong, W., Sun, X., Guo, H. & Shan, R. 2020. Comparison
of the SWAT and InVEST models to determine
hydrological ecosystem service spatial patterns,
priorities and trade-offs in a complex basin. Ecological
Indicators, 112, 106089. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ecolind.2020.106089
Daquinan, G. L., Guirhem, G. L. & Medioda, D. P.
Spatio-temporal mapping and monitoring of
mangrove forests changes from 1991 to 2021 in
Panay Island, Philippines using machine learning.
In: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental
Science (Vol. 1199, No. 2, pp. 012039).
Department of Environment and Natural ResourcesBiodiversity Management Bureau. 2022. DENR-BMB
cites significant strides in protected area, wildlife
conservation. Available from: https://www.denr.gov.
ph/index.php/news-events/press-releases/4725-denrbmb-cites-significant-strides-in-protected-area-wildlifeconservation. Access date: 2025 May 17.
Dida, J. J., Tiburan JR., C., Tsutsumida, N. & Saizen, I.
Carbon Stock Estimation of Selected Watersheds
in Laguna, Philippines Using InVEST. Philippine
Journal of Science, 150(2). DOI: https://doi.org/
56899/150.02.15
Edokpayi, J. N., Odiyo, J. O. & Durowoju, O. S. 2017. Impact
of wastewater on surface water quality in developing
countries: A case study of South Africa. Water Quality,
–416. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5772/66561
Estoque R. C., Myint S. W., Wang C., Ishtiaque A.,
Aung T. T., Emerton L., Ooba, M., Hijioka, Y., Mon, M. S.,
Wang, Z. & Fan, C. 2018. Assessing environmental
impacts and change in Myanmar’s mangrove
ecosystem service value due to deforestation, (2000–
. Global Change Biology, 24, 5391–5410.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14409
Feller, I. C., Friess, D. A., Krauss, K. W. & Lewis, R. R. 2017.
The State of the World’s Mangroves in the 21st Century
under Climate Change. Hydrobiologia, 803, 1–12.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-017-3331-z
Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Morris, R. D., &
Lyon, G. R. (2005). Evidence-based assessment
of learning disabilities in children and
adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent
Psychology, 34(3), 506–522.
Garcia, K. B., Malabrigo, P. L. & Gevaña, D. T. 2013.
Philippines’ mangrove ecosystem: Status, threats and
conservation. Mangrove Ecosystems of Asia, 81–94.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8582-7_5
Giri. C. 2016. Observation and monitoring of mangrove
forests using remote sensing: Opportunities
and challenges. Remote Sensing, 8, 783. DOI:
https//doi.org/10.3390/rs8090783
Göltenboth, F., Langenberger, G. & Widmann, P. 2006. Beach
forests. Ecology of Insular Southeast Asia, 281–295.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-044452739-4/50016-4
Gouvêa, L. P., Serrão, E. A., Cavanaugh, K., Gurgel, C. F.,
Horta, P. A. & Assis, J. 2022. Global impacts of projected
climate changes on mangrove forests’ extent and
aboveground biomass. Diversity and Distributions, 28,
–2360. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13631
Hayashi, S. N., Souza-Filho, P. W., Nascimento, W. R. &
Fernandes, M. E. 2019. The effect of anthropogenic
drivers on spatial patterns of mangrove land use
on the Amazon Coast. PLOS ONE, 14(6). DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217754
Habitat risk assessment of mangal ecosystem
Ocean and Coastal Research 2025, v73:e25026 15
Balasabas-Fresco et al.
Hayes, M. A., Jesse, A., Welti, N., Tabet, B.,
Lockington, D. & Lovelock, C. E. 2018. Groundwater
enhances above-ground growth in mangroves. Journal
of Ecology, 107(3): 1120–1128. DOI: https://doi.org/
1111/1365-2745.13105
Hobday, A. J., Smith, A. D. M., Stobutzki, I. C., Bulman, C.,
Daley, R., Dambacher, J. M., ... & Zhou, S. (2011).
Ecological risk assessment for the effects of
fishing. Fisheries Research, 108(2-3), 372–384.
Indriawan, D., Taofiqurrohman, A., Riyantini, I. & Faizal, I.
Assessment of risk levels of Mangrove Forest due
to oil spill in Muara Gembong, Bekasi Regency. ES3
Web of Conferences, 324(01004). Maritime Continent
Fulcrum International Conference (MaCiFIC 2021).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202132401004
Jia, M., Liu, M., Wang, Z., Mao, D., Ren, C. & Cui, H.
Evaluating the effectiveness of conservation
on mangroves: A remote sensing-based comparison
for two adjacent protected areas in Shenzhen and
Hong Kong, China. Remote Sensing, 8(8), 627. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8080627
Kihia, C. M. 2014. Impact of human physical disturbance
on mangrove forest structure at Gazi Bay, Kenya.
Egerton Journal of Science and Technology, 14, 31–47.
La Union Provincial Land Use Committee. 2015. (rep.).
San Fernando City Comprehensive Land Use Plan C.Y.
-2025 (Vol. 2). San Fernando, PLUC.
Limbo-Dizon, J. E., & Dagamac, N. H. A. 2023. Assessment
of coastal change detection on an urban coastline:
A case study in metropolitan Manila, Philippines. In:
IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental
Science (Vol. 1165, No. 1, p. 012015).
Marcantonio, M., Rocchini, D., Geri, F., Bacaro, G., &
Amici, V. 2013. Biodiversity, roads, & landscape
fragmentation: Two Mediterranean cases. Applied
Geography, 42, 63–72. DOI: https://doi.org/
1016/j.apgeog.2013.05.001
McLeod, E., & Salm, R. V. 2006. Managing mangroves
for resilience to climate change. Gland, The World
Conservation Union – IUCN. Available from:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/nol/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/311006_
iucn_mangroves_guide.pdf. Access date: 2025 May 17.
McSherry, M., Davis, R. P., Andradi-Brown, D. A.,
Ahmadiyya, G. N., Kempen, M. V. & Brian, S. W. 2023.
Integrated mangrove aquaculture: The sustainable
choice for mangroves and aquaculture? Frontiers
for Global Change, 6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/
ffgc.2023.1094306
Phan M. H. & Stive M. J. F. 2022. Managing mangroves
and coastal land cover in the Mekong delta.
Ocean & Coastal Management, 219, 106013. DOI:
https://doi/org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2021.106013
Olfato-Parojinog, A., Sobremonte-Maglipon, P. A.,
Limbo-Dizon, J. E., Almadrones-Reyes, K. J.,
Dagamac, N. H. A. 2023. Land use/land cover changes
(LULCC) using remote sensing analyses in Rizal,
Philippines. Geojournal, 88(6), 6105–6118. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-023-10959-7
Polidoro, B. A., Carpenter, K. E., Collins, L., Duke, N. C.,
Ellison, A. M., Ellison, J. C., Farnsworth, E. J.,
Fernando, E. S., Kathiresan, K., Koedam, N. E.,
Livingstone, S. R., Miyagi, T., Moore, G. E., Ngoc
Nam, V., Ong, J. E., Primavera, J. H., Salmo, S. G.,
Sanciangco, J. C., Sukardjo, S., … Yong, J. W. 2010.
The loss of species: Mangrove extinction risk and
geographic areas of global concern. PLoS ONE, 5(4).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010095
Prance, G. T. & Tomlinson, P. B. 1987. The botany of
mangroves. Brittonia, 39(1), 10. DOI: https://doi.org/
2307/2806964
Primavera, J. 2004. Philippine mangroves: status, threats
and sustainable development. In: Vannucci, M. (Ed.).
Mangrove Management and Conservation: Present
and Future (pp. 192-207). Tokyo: United Nations
University Press. Available from: http://hdl.handle.
net/10862/480. Access date: 2025 May 17.
Provincial Government of La Union. (2002). Provincial
Environmental Protection and Management
Code of La Union. San Fernando City, La Union:
Provincial Government.
Quevedo, J. M., Uchiyama, Y. & Kohsaka, R. 2019.
Perceptions of local communities on mangals, their
services and management: Implications for eco-DRR
and Blue Carbon Management for Eastern Samar,
Philippines. Journal of Forest Research, 25(1), 1–11.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13416979.2019.1696441
Rivera, P. C., Amik, J. E., Escobar, M. I., OlfatoParojinog, A., Sobremonte-Maglipon, P. A., LimboDizon, J. E. & Dagamac, N. H. A. 2024. Land
use/land cover change along the coastline of La Union,
Philippines. Journal of Geomatics, 18(1), 103–111.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58825/jog.2024.18.1.129
Salmo III, S. G., Favis, A. M. T. & Ting, M. N. S. 2014.
State of mangroves in La Union. In: Salmo III, S. G.,
Favis, A. M. T. & Ting, M. N. S. (Ed.). State of the
Mangroves Summit: Northwestern Luzon Proceedings
(pp. 46–48). Manila: Ateneo de Manila University.
Sharp, R., Tallis, H. T., Ricketts, T.,
Guerry, A. D., Wood, S. A., ChaplinKramer, R., Nelson, E., Ennaanay, D., Wolny, S.,
Olwero, N., Vigerstol, K., Pinnington, D., Mendoza, G.,
Aukema, J., Foster, J., Forrest, J., Cameron, D.,
Arkema, K., Lonsdorf, E., Kennedy, C., Verutes, G.,
Kim, C. K., Guannel, G., Papenfus, M., Toft, J. M. M. B.,
Marsik, M., Bernhardt, J., Griffin, R., Glowinski, K.,
Chaumont., N., Perelman, A., Lacayo, M., Mandle, L.,
Hamel, P., Vogl, A. L., Rogers, L. & Bierbower, W.
InVEST 3.2.0 Beta User’s Guide (pp. 114–131).
Stanford: The Natural Capital Project.
Stamoulis, K. A., & Delevaux, J. M. (2015). Data
requirements and tools to operationalize marine
spatial planning in the United States. Ocean & Coastal
Management, 116, 214–223.
Studwell, A., Hines, E., Nur, N., & Jahncke, J. (2021).
Using habitat risk assessment to assess disturbance
from maritime activities to inform seabird conservation
in a coastal marine ecosystem. Ocean & Coastal
Management, 199, 105431.
Tinh, P. H., Mackenzie, R. A., Hung, T. D., Hanh, N. T. H.,
Hanh, N. H., Manh, D. Q., Ha, H. T. & Tuan, M. S.
Distribution and drivers of Vietnam mangrove
deforestation from 1995 to 2019. Mitigation
Habitat risk assessment of mangal ecosystem
Ocean and Coastal Research 2025, v73:e25026 16
Balasabas-Fresco et al.
Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 27(29).
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-022-10005-w
Toulec, T., Lhota, S., Soumarova, H., Sariyanto
Putera, A. K. & Kustiawan, W. 2019. Shrimp farms, fire,
or palm oil? Changing causes of the proboscis monkey
habitat loss. Global Energy Conservation, 21, e00863.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00863
Umprasoet, W., Mu, Y., Somrup, S., Junchompoo, C.,
Guo, Z. & Zhang, Z. 2023. Assessment of habitat risks
caused by human activities and integrated approach
to marine spatial planning: The case of Srirarcha
district – Sichang island. Coasts, 3(3), 190–208. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3390/coasts3030012
Villate Daza, D. A., Sánchez Moreno, H., Portz, L.,
Portantiolo Manzolli, R., Bolívar-Anillo, H. J. &
Anfuso, G. 2020. Mangrove forests evolution and
threats in the Caribbean Sea of Colombia. Water, 12(4),
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/w12041113
Walters, B. B. 2004. Local Management of mangals
in the Philippines: Successful conservation or
efficient resource exploitation? Human Ecology,
(2), 177–195. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/
b:huec.0000019762.36361.48
Widjaja, S., Long, T. & Wirajuda, H. 2020. Illegal, Unreported
and Unregulated Fishing and Associated Drivers.
Washington, DC, World Resources Institute.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Cheska Jan Balasabas-Fresco, Melissa Caceres-Baysic, Mark JohnFer Alonzo-Magalona, Katherine Iona Muller, Nikki Heherson A. Dagamac, James Eduard Limbo-Dizon
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Ocean and Coastal Research is an open-access journal available through SciELO (Scientific Electronic Library Online).
Ocean and Coastal Research journal title abbreviation is Ocean Coast. Res. and should be used in footnotes, references, and bibliographic entries.
All Ocean and Coastal Research scientific articles are freely available without charge to the user or institution. In accordance with the BOAI definition of open access, all contents are available to readers free of charge. Users may read, download, copy, and link to the full texts of the articles. They may be used for any lawful purpose without prior authorization from the publisher or the author, as long as proper credit is given to the original publication.
All Ocean and Coastal Research published scientific articles receive an individual Digital Object Identifier (DOI) persistent digital document identification.
All the content of the journal, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons License type BY. Authors retain the copyright and full publishing rights without restrictions.
More information on intellectual property can be found here and on Scielo's Open Acess Statement.
Ocean and Coastal Research is listed in Publons and reviewers and editors can add their verified peer review and editing history to their Publons profile.
Ocean and Coastal Research is indexed in the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) and complies with principles of transparency and best practice for scholarly publications.
Ocean and Coastal Research is committed to the best standards in open-access publishing by adopting ethical and quality standards throughout the publishing process - from initial manuscript submission to the final article publication. This ensures authors that their work will have visibility, accessibility, reputation, usage, and impact in a sustainable model of scholarly publishing.
