Cerebro, estrés y defensa: elementos para una teoría neurocientífica del trauma psicológico
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-6564e220033Palabras clave:
trauma psicológico, estrés postraumático, acondicionamiento clásico, neurocienciasResumen
Las condiciones psicopatológicas resultantes de eventos traumáticos han recibido progresivamente interpretaciones neurocientíficas. Como resultado, las devastadoras experiencias humanas vieron reducidas su complejidad al funcionamiento perturbado de los sistemas neurofisiológicos atribuidos a las respuestas al estrés. A partir de una revisión narrativa, este artículo buscará explorar algunas de las condiciones epistemológicas esenciales para el surgimiento de una teoría neurocientífica del estrés traumático, demostrando la solidaridad que mantiene con la teoría evolutiva y con la investigación sobre el condicionamiento clásico en animales. Se espera que este trabajo pueda resaltar algunas de las repercusiones éticas de descuidar los factores sociales y culturales en la interpretación de los fenómenos secundarios de trauma.
Descargas
Referencias
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3a ed.). Washington, DC: APA.
Baldwin, D. V. (2013). Primitive mechanisms of trauma response: An evolutionary perspective on trauma-related disorders. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(8), 1549-1566. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.06.004
Bali, A., & Jaggi, A. S. (2015). Electric foot shock stress: A useful tool in neuropsychiatric studies. Reviews in the Neurosciences, 26(6), 655-677. doi: https://doi.org/10.1515/revneuro-2015-0015
Barroca, N. C. B., Santa, G. D., Suchecki, D., García-Cairasco, N., & Umeoka, E. H. L. (2022). Challenges in the use of animal models and perspectives for a translational view of stress and psychopathologies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 140, Artigo 104771. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104771
Bouton, M., & Waddell, J. (2007). Some Biobehavioral Insights into Persistent Effects of Emotional Trauma. In: Kirmayer, L., Lemelson, R. & Barad, M. (Eds.). Understanding trauma: Integrating biological, psychological and cultural perspectives. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp.41-59.
Bremner, J. D., & Marmar, C. R. (2002). Trauma, memory, and dissociation. (Vol. 54). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Pub.
Bremner, J. D. (2006). Traumatic stress: Effects on the brain. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 8(4), 445-461. doi: https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2006.8.4/jbremner
Bremner, J. D., Vythilingam, M., Vermetten, E., Adil, J., Khan, S., Nazeer, A., Afzal, N., McGlashan, T., Elzinga, B., Anderson, G. M., Heninger, G., Southwick, S. M., & Charney, D. S. (2003). Cortisol response to a cognitive stress challenge in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) related to childhood abuse. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28(6), 733-750. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00067-7
Brewin, C. R. (2001). Memory processes in post-traumatic stress disorder. International Review of Psychiatry, 13(3), 159-163. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/09540260120074019
Careaga, M. B. L., Girardi, C. E. N., & Suchecki, D. (2016). Understanding posttraumatic stress disorder through fear conditioning, extinction and reconsolidation. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 71, 48-57. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.023
Caruth, C. (1996). Unclaimed experience: Trauma, narrative, and history. Baltimore, MA: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Chiao, J. Y. (2009). Cultural neuroscience: A once and future discipline. Progress in Brain Research, 178, 287-304. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0079-6123(09)17821-4
Clinchy, M., Sheriff, M. J., & Zanette, L. Y. (2013). Predator-induced stress and the ecology of fear. Functional Ecology, 27(1), 56-65. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12007
Cloitre, M. (2021). Complex PTSD: Assessment and treatment. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(sup. 1), Artigo 1866423. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1866423
Cohen, H., Kozlovsky, N., Alona, C., Matar, M. A., & Joseph, Z. (2012). Animal model for PTSD: From clinical concept to translational research. Neuropharmacology, 62(2), 715-724. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.04.023
Dopfel, D., Perez, P. D., Verbitsky, A., Bravo-Rivera, H., Ma, Y., Quirk, G. J., & Zhang, N. (2019). Individual variability in behavior and functional networks predicts vulnerability using an animal model of PTSD. Nature Communications, 10(1), Artigo 2372. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09926-z
Everly, G. S., Jr., & Lating, J. M. (Eds.). (1995). Psychotraumatology: Key papers and core concepts in post-traumatic stress. New York, NY: Springer.
Fassin, D., & Rechtman, R. (2009). The empire of trauma: An inquiry into the condition of victimhood. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Flandreau, E. I., & Toth, M. (2017). Animal models of PTSD: A critical review. Behavioral Neurobiology of PTSD, 38, 47-68. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_65
Foa, E. B., Zinbarg, R., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1992). Uncontrollability and unpredictability in post-traumatic stress disorder: An animal model. Psychological Bulletin, 112(2), 218-238. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.2.218
Fragkaki, I., Roelofs, K., Stins, J., Jongedijk, R. A., & Hagenaars, M. A. (2017). Reduced freezing in posttraumatic stress disorder patients while watching affective pictures. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8(39). doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00039
Freud, S. (2010). História de uma neurose infantil (“o homem dos lobos”), além do princípio do prazer e outros textos (1917-1920) (Obras Completas, Vol. 14). São Paulo, SP: Companhia das Letras.
Friston, K. (2009). The free-energy principle: A rough guide to the brain? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(7), 293-301. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.04.005
Friston, K. (2013). Life as we know it. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 10(86), Artigo 20130475. doi: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2013.0475
Fuchs, T. (2018). Ecology of the brain: The phenomenology and biology of the embodied mind. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Galatzer-Levy, I. R., & Bryant, R. A. (2013). 636,120 ways to have posttraumatic stress disorder. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(6), 651-662. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613504115
Gillespie, R. D. (1942). Psychological effects of war on citizen and soldier. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co.
Guthrie, R. M., & Bryant, R. A. (2006). Extinction learning before trauma and subsequent posttraumatic stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 68(2), 307-311. doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/01.psy.0000208629.67653.cc
Harvey, M. R. (1996). An ecological view of psychological trauma and trauma recovery. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(1), 3-23. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490090103
Heyes, C. (2003). Four routes of cognitive evolution. Psychological Review, 110(4), 713-727. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.4.713
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513-524. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513
Hobfoll, S. E. (2004). Stress, culture, and community: The psychology and philosophy of stress. New York, NY: Springer.
Horton, A. Neuropsychology of PTSD: Problems, Prospects, and Promises. In: Everly, Lating (Org.). Psychotraumatology: Key papers and core concepts in post-traumatic stress. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. 1995. pp. 147-155.
Ingold, T. (2000). The perception of the environment: Essays on livelihood, dwelling and skill. Oxford, England: Routledge.
Ingold, T., & Palsson, G. (Eds.). (2013). Biosocial becomings: integrating social and biological anthropology. Cambridge University Press.
Insel, T. R. (2012). Next-generation treatments for mental disorders. Science Translational Medicine, 4(155), Artigo 155ps19. doi: https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3004873
Janet, P. (1889). L’Automatisme psychologique: essai de psychologie experimentale sur les formes inferieures de l’activite humaine. Paris, France: F. Alcan.
Kandel, E. R. (2007). In search of memory: The emergence of a new science of mind. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co.
Kar, N. (2011). Cognitive behavioral therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: A review. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 7(1), 167-181. doi: https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S10389
Kardiner, A. (1941). The traumatic neuroses of war. New York, NY: P. Hoeber.
Kemeny, M. (2003). The psychobiology of stress. Current directions in psychological science, 12(4), 124-129.
Kirmayer, L., Lemelson, R., & Barad, M. (Eds.). (2007). Understanding trauma: Integrating biological, psychological and cultural perspectives. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Koba, T., Kodama, Y., Shimizu, K., Nomura, S., Sugawara, M., Kobayashi, Y., & Ogasawara, T. (2001). Persistent behavioural changes in rats following inescapable shock stress: A potential model of posttraumatic stress disorder. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 2(1), 34-37. doi: https://doi.org/10.3109/15622970109039982
Kolb, L. (1987). A neuropsychological hypothesis explaining posttraumatic stress disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 144(8), 989-995. doi: https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.144.8.989
Leys, R. (2000). Trauma: A genealogy. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
Leys, R. (2006). Image and trauma. Science in Context, 19(1), 137-149.
Mahan, A. L., & Ressler, K. J. (2012). Fear conditioning, synaptic plasticity and the amygdala: Implications for posttraumatic stress disorder. Trends in Neurosciences, 35(1), 24-35. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2011.06.007
Maren, S., & Holmes, A. (2016). Stress and fear extinction. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(1), 58-79. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2015.180
McEwen, B. S. (1998). Stress, adaptation, and disease: Allostasis and allostatic load. In S. M. McCann, J. M. Lipton, E. M. Sternberg, G. P. Chrousos, P. W. Gold & C. C. Smith (Eds.), Molecular aspects, integrative systems, and clinical advances (pp. 33-44). New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences.
McNally, R. J. (2003). Progress and controversy in the study of posttraumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 229-252. doi: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145112
McNally, R. J. (2006). Cognitive abnormalities in post-traumatic stress disorder. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(6), 271-277. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.04.007
Mountcastle, V. (1998). Perceptual science: the Cerebral Cortex. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Northoff, G. (2013). What the brain’s intrinsic activity can tell us about consciousness? A tri-dimensional view. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(4), 726-738. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.12.004
Orr, S. P., Metzger, L. J., Lasko, N. B., Macklin, M. L., Peri, T., & Pitman, R. K. (2000). De novo conditioning in trauma-exposed individuals with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(2), 290-298.
Philbert, J., Pichat, P., Beeské, S., Decobert, M., Belzung, C., & Griebel, G. (2011). Acute inescapable stress exposure induces long-term sleep disturbances and avoidance behavior: A mouse model of post-traumatic stress disorder (PSTD). Behavioural Brain Research, 221(1), 149-154. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2011.02.039
Pitman, R. K. (1989). Post-traumatic stress disorder, hormones, and memory. Biological Psychiatry, 26(3), 221-223. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(89)90033-4
Rau, V., DeCola, J. P., & Fanselow, M. S. (2005). Stress-induced enhancement of fear learning: An animal model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 29(8), 1207-1223. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.04.010
Rau, V., & Fanselow, M. S. (2007). Neurobiological and neuroethological perspectives on fear and anxiety. In L. Kirmayer, R. Lemelson & M. Barad (Eds.), Understanding trauma: Integrating biological, psychological and cultural perspectives (pp. 27-41). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Resick, P. (2013). Stress and trauma. London, England: Psychology Press.
Richter-Levin, G., Stork, O., & Schmidt, M. V. (2019). Animal models of PTSD: A challenge to be met. Molecular Psychiatry, 24, 1135-1156. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-018-0272-5
Rose, N., & Abi-Rached, J. (2013). Neuro: The new brain sciences and the management of the mind. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Rothbaum, B. O., & Davis, M.. (2003). Applying learning principles to the treatment of post-trauma reactions. In J. A. King, C. F. Ferris & I. I. Lederhendler (Orgs.), Roots of mental illness in children (pp. 112-121). New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences.
Schauer, M., & Elbert, T.. (2010). Dissociation following traumatic stress: Etiology and treatment. Journal of Psychology, 218(2), 109-127. doi: https://doi.org/10.1027/0044-3409/a000018
Seidler, G. H., & Wagner, F. E. (2006). Comparing the efficacy of EMDR and trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of PTSD: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Medicine, 36(11), 1515-1522. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706007963
Shalev, A. (1996). Stress versus traumatic stress: From acute homeostatic reactions from chronic psychopathology. In B. A. van der Kolk, A. McFarlane & L. Weiseah (Orgs.), Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society (pp. 77-102). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., & Mendelsohn, A. (2019). Real-life neuroscience: An ecological approach to brain and behavior research. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(5), 841-859. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619856350
Shin, L. M., Rauch, S. L., & Pitman, R. K. (2006). Amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex, and hippocampal function in PTSD. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071(1), 67-79. doi: https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1364.007
Siegmund, A., & Wotjak, C. T.. (2006). Toward an animal model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071(1), 324-334. doi: https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1364.025
Southwick, S. M., Morgan, C. A., Darnell, A., Bremner, D., Nicolaou, A. L., Nagy, L. M., & Charney, D. S. (1995). Trauma-related symptoms in veterans of Operation Desert Storm: A 2-year follow-up. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(8), 1150-1155. doi: https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.8.1150
Spinhoven, P., Penninx, B. W., Hemert, A. M., Rooij, M., & Elzinga, B. M. (2014). Comorbidity of PTSD in anxiety and depressive disorders: Prevalence and shared risk factors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(8), 1320-1330. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.01.017
Trimble, M. (1985). Post-traumatic stress disorder: History of a concept. In C. R. Figley (Org.), Trauma and its wake (Vol. 1). New York, NY: Routledge.
van der Kolk, B. A. (2016). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind and body in the healing of trauma. New York, NY: Penguin.
van der Kolk, B. A. (1989). The compulsion to repeat the trauma: Re-enactment, revictimization, and masochism. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 12(2), 389-411.
van der Kolk, B. A. (1996). Trauma and memory. In B. A. van der Kolk , A. McFarlane & L. Weiseah (Eds.), Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society (pp. 279-303). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
van der Kolk, B. A., Greenberg, M., Boyd, H., & Krystal, J. (1985). Inescapable shock, neurotransmitters, and addiction to trauma: Toward a psychobiology of post traumatic stress. Biological Psychiatry, 20(3), 314-325. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(85)90061-7
Vidal, F., & Ortega, F. (2020). Being brains: making the cerebral subject. Bronx, NY: Fordham University Press.
Wilson, J. P., & Raphael, B. (1993). International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes. New York, NY: Springer.
Yamamoto, S., Morinobu, S., Takei, S., Fuchikami, M., Matsuki, A., Yamawaki, S., & Liberzon, I. (2009). Single prolonged stress: Toward an animal model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 26(12), 1110-1117. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20629
Yehuda, R., McFarlane, A., & Shalev, A. (1998). Predicting the development of posttraumatic stress disorder from the acute response to a traumatic event. Biological psychiatry, 44(12), 1305-1313.
Yehuda, R., & LeDoux, J. (2007). Response variation following trauma: A translational neuroscience approach to understanding PTSD. Neuron, 56(1), 19-32. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.09.006
Young, A. (1995). The harmony of illusions: Inventing post-traumatic stress disorder. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Descargas
Publicado
Número
Sección
Licencia
Derechos de autor 2024 Psicologia USP
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivadas 4.0.
Todo o conteúdo de Psicologia USP está licenciado sob uma Licença Creative Commons BY-NC, exceto onde identificado diferentemente.
A aprovação dos textos para publicação implica a cessão imediata e sem ônus dos direitos de publicação para a revista Psicologia USP, que terá a exclusividade de publicá-los primeiramente.
A revista incentiva autores a divulgarem os pdfs com a versão final de seus artigos em seus sites pessoais e institucionais, desde que estes sejam sem fins lucrativos e/ou comerciais, mencionando a publicação original em Psicologia USP.
