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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">pusp</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Psicologia USP</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Psicol. USP</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0103-6564</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">1678-5177</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Instituto de Psicologia da Universidade de São Paulo</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/0103-656420160050</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>ARTIGOS ORIGINAIS</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Evitação e proibição do incesto: fatores psicobiológicos e culturais</article-title>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="fr">
					<trans-title>Évitement et prohibition de l’inceste : facteurs psychobiologiques et culturels</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="es">
					<trans-title>La evitación y la prohibición del incesto: factores psicobiológicos y culturales</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Holanda</surname>
						<given-names>Francisco Wilson Nogueira</given-names>
						<suffix>Júnior</suffix>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Psicologia. Natal, RN, Brasil</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de Pós-Graduação em Psicologia</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Natal</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">RN</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>*</label>Endereços para correspondência: <email>franciscowilson3@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
				<season>May-Aug</season>
				<year>2017</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>28</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<fpage>287</fpage>
			<lpage>297</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>13</day>
					<month>04</month>
					<year>2016</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>02</day>
					<month>07</month>
					<year>2016</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>21</day>
					<month>09</month>
					<year>2016</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="pt">
					<license-p>Este é um artigo publicado em acesso aberto sob uma licença Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>Embora historicamente a regulação proibitiva do incesto seja considerada um fenômeno cultural quase universal que não é influenciado por fatores psicobiológicos relativos à história evolutiva da espécie humana, evidências recentes têm questionado essa visão tradicional e defendido que a evitação e a proibição do incesto são influenciadas biológica e cognitivamente com a cultura. Este artigo objetiva desenvolver uma discussão teórica acerca da inibição e proibição do incesto, enfatizando os mecanismos evolutivos subjacentes a esses fenômenos. Argumenta-se a existência de mecanismos endógenos que evoluíram porque inibem a atividade sexual entre parentes próximos e que formam a base para regular socialmente a proibição do incesto (mecanismo exógeno). Destaca-se o efeito Westermarck, no qual a proximidade de pessoas que vivem juntas desde a infância provoca uma aversão ao intercurso sexual entre elas. A ausência de propensão ao incesto e sua proibição institucional constituem uma complexa integração entre fatores psicobiológicos e culturais.</p>
			</abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="fr">
				<title>Résumé</title>
				<p>Bien que, historiquement, le règlement prohibitif de l’inceste est considéré comme un phénomène culturel presque omniprésente pas influencé par des facteurs psychobiologiques liés à l’évolutionniste de l’histoire de l’espèce humaine, des preuves récentes ont contesté ce point de vue traditionnel et fait valoir que la prévention et la prohibition de l’inceste sont influencées biologiquement et cognitivement le long à la réglementation culturelle. Cet article vise à développer une discussion théorique sur l’interdiction et la prévention de l’inceste, mettant l’accent sur les mécanismes de l’évolution sous-tendent à ces phénomènes. On fait valoir l’existence de mécanismes endogènes qui ont évolué car ils inhibent l’activité sexuelle entre proches parents et qui forment la base de l’interdiction formulée culturellement de l’inceste (mécanisme exogène). L’effet Westermarck est mis en évidence, dans lequel la proximité des personnes qui vivent ensemble depuis la petite enfance déclenche une aversion pour les rapports sexuels entre eux. L’absence de propension à l’inceste et son interdiction institutionnelle représentent une intégration complexe entre les facteurs psychobiologiques et culturels.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<p>Aunque históricamente la prohibición del incesto es considerada como un fenómeno cultural, casi universal, que no está influenciada por factores psicobiológicos relacionados con la historia evolutiva de la especie humana, las evidencias recientes han desafiado este punto de vista tradicional, argumentando que la prevención y la prohibición del incesto son influenciados biológica y cognitivamente juntos a la regulación cultural. Este texto tiene como objetivo desarrollar una discusión teórica de la inhibición y el tabú del incesto, subrayando los mecanismos evolutivos que subyacen a estos fenómenos. Argumenta la existencia de mecanismos endógenos evolutivos que inhiben la actividad sexual entre parientes cercanos y forman la base para la prohibición del incesto culturalmente formulado (mecanismo exógeno). Se pone de relieve el efecto Westermarck en el que la proximidad de las personas que viven juntas desde la primera infancia provoca una aversión a las relaciones sexuales entre ellas. La falta de propensión hacia el incesto y su prohibición institucional forman una integración compleja entre los factores psicobiológicos y culturales.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
				<kwd>incesto</kwd>
				<kwd>evitação</kwd>
				<kwd>proibição</kwd>
				<kwd>evolução</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="fr">
				<title>Mots-clés:</title>
				<kwd>incest</kwd>
				<kwd>évitement</kwd>
				<kwd>prohibition</kwd>
				<kwd>évolution</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>incesto</kwd>
				<kwd>evitación</kwd>
				<kwd>prohibición</kwd>
				<kwd>evolución</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="0"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="64"/>
				<page-count count="11"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introdução</title>
			<p>O incesto é definido como a prática de relação sexual entre pessoas com graus próximos de parentesco, o qual pode ser de curto ou longo prazo, com ou sem geração de filhos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Lumsden &amp; Wilson, 1980</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Read, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Tidefors, Arvidsson, Ingevaldson, &amp; Larsson, 2010</xref>). Historicamente a regulação social do incesto, que geralmente culmina na proibição, também conhecida como tabu do incesto, foi considerada culturalmente universal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Noble &amp; Mason, 1978</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Wolf &amp; Durham, 2004</xref>). Embora a extensa difusão dessa proibição dê uma ideia de ubiquidade, há ocorrências de incesto registradas em algumas sociedades, o que inclui os casos consentidos e de abuso sexual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">DeMause, 1991</xref>). As regras proibitivas resguardam algumas particularidades relacionadas à sociedade e ao contexto histórico, apesar de que há tipificações proibitivas comuns: é mais provável que nas sociedades atuais o intercurso sexual entre pais e filhos e entre irmãos seja proibido social, moral ou legalmente com abrangência universal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Sanderson, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Shepher, 1983</xref>). Em contraste, algumas sociedades encorajam o casamento entre primos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Hoben, Buunk, &amp; Fischer, 2016</xref>). Discute-se então se de fato as regras sociais contra incesto são universais ou quase universais, como (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Thornhill, 1991</xref>) sugere mais apropriadamente.</p>
			<p>Nas sociedades antigas, como a egípcia e a inca, o incesto ocorria para proteger o sangue real, até mesmo entre irmãos, sendo também identificados casos nos povos judaicos antigos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Kutz, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Strong, 2006</xref>). Nas últimas décadas, as maiores taxas de casamento consanguíneo foram observadas no norte da África, no Oriente Médio e em grande parte da Ásia Central e Sul, onde residem mais de 25% da população mundial. As uniões entre primos, especialmente de segundo grau, são responsáveis por ≥50% dos casamentos consanguíneos nessas populações (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Zlotogora, Hujerat, Barges, Shalev, &amp; Chakravarti, 2007</xref>). Os casamentos consanguíneos de segundo e terceiro graus oferecem vantagens, como fortalecimento dos laços e relações familiares, garantia de saber da história de vida do cônjuge antes do casamento, facilidade de acertar os dotes e bens da noiva e negociações pré-matrimoniais simplificadas.</p>
			<p>As próprias fronteiras conceituais do incesto podem variar conforme o campo de estudo ou referência. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Thornhill, 1991</xref>) formula que os comportamentos referidos como incestuosos na literatura das ciências sociais podem ser divididos em três categorias: a endogamia incestuosa, que diz respeito às relações sexuais entre indivíduos com parentesco próximo, isto é, cujo parentesco se dá por descendência direta (por exemplo, entre pais e filhos ou entre irmãos); a endogamia não incestuosa, que engloba relações sexuais entre indivíduos com parentesco mais distante (por exemplo, entre primos); a atividade sexual advinda de adultérios entre pessoas sem parentesco genético no contexto familiar (por exemplo, enteado e madrasta).</p>
			<p>O que (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Thornhill, 1991</xref>) classifica como endogamia incestuosa parece delimitar mais robustamente o núcleo conceitual de incesto como o intercurso sexual entre parentes próximos (entre pais e filhos, entre irmãos), uma vez que essa forma de relação sexual leva à maior probabilidade de prole defeituosa devido às maiores chances de receber um alelo recessivo prejudicial herdado de um ancestral comum. Cabe pontuar que endogamia e incesto são termos que foram usados mais comumente nas ciências biológicas e sociais, respectivamente, muitas vezes de forma imprecisa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Moore, 1992</xref>). (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Leavitt, 1990</xref>) demonstra que não é simples fazer a diferenciação visto que ambos os termos designam superficialmente a atividade sexual ou acasalamento entre seres com graus próximos de parentesco. Especificamente, a endogamia está atrelada à ideia de reprodução entre os indivíduos com parentesco, enquanto o incesto enfatiza a atividade sexual que pode ou não gerar prole. Especialmente na espécie humana, a atividade sexual nem sempre resulta na geração de prole. O termo “incesto” tem sido mais utilizado em estudos sobre seres humanos, além alcançar nesta espécie a variável cultural da institucionalização da proibição (tabu do incesto).</p>
			<p>A partir da diferenciação supracitada de (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Thornhill, 1991</xref>), o termo “incesto” será tratado aqui como referência à classificação da endogamia incestuosa. A proibição de relações sexuais entre irmãos ou pais e filhos resguarda a menor ocorrência dessa modalidade de relação consanguínea, sendo entendido que esses são o tipo genuíno de incesto no qual atuam mais fortemente as proibições sociais quando comparado às relações entre parentes de segundo ou terceiro graus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Saggar &amp; Bittles, 2008</xref>).</p>
			<p>De acordo com uma parcela tradicional das ciências sociais, a universalidade (ou quase universalidade) da proibição do incesto está fundamentada em uma base social-cultural que é independente de processos psicobiológicos componentes da história evolutiva da espécie humana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Hoebel &amp; Frost, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Wolf &amp; Durham, 2004</xref>). Essa abordagem enfatiza que o incesto é interdito socialmente uma vez que ameaça de alguma forma a ordem social. Nessa direção, de acordo com (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Lévi-Strauss, 1976</xref>) a proibição do incesto exprime a passagem do fato natural da consanguinidade ao fato cultural da aliança. Consideram-se, nesse paradigma, as razões que fazem do incesto algo socialmente inconcebível e como se torna regulado pela cultura em detrimento da natureza.</p>
			<p>Por outro lado, adotar uma lente que considera somente a variável cultural ou ambiental de determinados comportamentos dos seres humanos, como os comportamentos sexuais, resulta em cair nas obsoletas dicotomias biologia-cultura ou inato-aprendido e em negligenciar que é possível descrever, ao menos parcialmente, problemas e soluções adaptativas, enfrentadas pelos ancestrais da espécie. A psicologia evolucionista tem como um dos pilares transversais a integração entre fatores biológicos e socioculturais. Se os seres humanos produzem cultura e se representam nela, a razão de fazê-lo é que eles são biologicamente culturais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hattori &amp; Yamamoto, 2012</xref>).</p>
			<p>Na literatura sobre comportamento incestuoso, os teóricos sociais tradicionais focaram na proibição cultural do incesto (mecanismo exógeno), não considerando outro mecanismo igualmente importante e complementar da espécie humana, que consiste na de rejeição individual ao incesto (mecanismo endógeno de inibição da endogamia). Houve uma negligência a explicações psicobiológicas e evolucionistas para a proibição e rejeição do incesto, isto é, de que a arquitetura cognitiva humana provavelmente dispõe de um circuito que evoluiu porque inibe a atividade sexual entre familiares e que a regulação institucional do incesto não se dá exclusivamente por via sociocultural (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Lieberman, Tooby, &amp; Cosmides, 2003</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">2007</xref>).</p>
			<p>Somente reconhecer que a proibição do incesto é quase universal não responde o porquê de esse fenômeno apresentar essa natureza e muito menos o porquê dos seres humanos apresentarem também uma rejeição, evitação ou inibição às relações incestuosas. Assim, há dois níveis distintos, porém integrados: a proibição e a evitação. Conforme pontuou (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Searle, 2013</xref>), inibição não quer dizer proibição e vice-versa. Isto é, a ausência da inclinação para a relação sexual entre parentes não explica a proibição quase universal sobre esse tipo de relação, bem como a proibição institucionalizada não explica por que os seres humanos rejeitam relações incestuosas. Por que existe um tabu moral para o incesto e qual sua relação com a evolução da espécie humana? O que está no centro do tabu do incesto? Por que proibições existem para um comportamento que, aparentemente, ninguém está motivado a executar? </p>
			<p>Com base nos achados experimentais da literatura, dos recentes trabalhos no campo da psicologia evolucionista, da etologia e das neurociências, este trabalho objetiva realizar uma discussão teórica acerca da inibição e da proibição do incesto, enfatizando os mecanismos evolutivos subjacentes a esses fenômenos, bem como as bases biológicas, os aspectos cognitivos, comportamentais e sociais envolvidos no tabu do incesto. Serão expostos sequencialmente tópicos de discussão sobre implicações biológicas do relacionamento sexual incestuoso, mecanismos evolutivos de inibição e proibição do incesto com base na psicologia evolucionista, correlatos neurobiológicos da moralidade e do incesto e considerações éticas e legais.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Implicações biológicas do incesto: os riscos da endogamia </title>
			<p>Frequentemente argumenta-se que o incesto é moralmente errado pelas suas consequências biológicas indesejáveis decorrentes da relação sexual entre parentes biológicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Bittles, 2012</xref>). Proles provenientes de relações consanguíneas de primeiro grau são 17%-40% mais prováveis de sofrer doenças ou morrer quando comparadas às crianças nascidas de relações não consanguíneas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aoki, 2004</xref>). Sabe-se que em casos de endogamia entre pai e filha, um possível diagnóstico de um transtorno autossômico recessivo em uma prole resultante dessa relação está associado a uma probabilidade maior que 50% de que a endogamia foi causal para a doença na prole (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Schmidtke &amp; Krawczak, 2010</xref>). Outros dados mais conservadores apontam 30% de probabilidade (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Saggar &amp; Bittles, 2008</xref>).</p>
			<p>Uma aptidão biológica reduzida para filhos consanguíneos, referida como depressão endogâmica, foi explicada como sendo devido a esse aumento da probabilidade de combinações prejudiciais dos alelos homozigóticos recessivos e ao aumento da suscetibilidade aos organismos causadores de doença (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bittles &amp; Neel, 1994</xref>). Embora a depressão endogâmica atue como um mecanismo inibidor para as pessoas não cometerem o incesto, justificando sua reprovação social e moral, é um fator com limitações explanatórias quando considerado isoladamente. Esse tipo de inibição endógena não se aplica ao incesto entre parentes de mesmo sexo, pois não há geração de prole e, mais importante, não explica a razão do incesto ser evitado mesmo em irmãos não biológicos, sem parentesco genético, criados juntos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler &amp; Navarrete, 2004</xref>). Tenham parentesco genético ou não, irmãos que crescem juntos têm menos chances de casar ou ter filhos, e quando se casam, se divorciam depois, sendo a taxa de divórcio muito maior do que casais sem nenhum tipo de parentesco; apresentam baixo índice de geração de filhos e maiores relações extraconjugais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">McCabe, 1983</xref>). O mecanismo de depressão endogâmica sozinho não pode explicar o tabu do incesto, pois carece dos componentes comportamentais e cognitivos que apresentam a história evolutiva na espécie humana, conforme exposto a seguir.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Mecanismos evolutivos de inibição e proibição do incesto</title>
			<p>Não é recente a proposição de que a espécie humana possui um mecanismo que evoluiu para inibir o incesto e que essa habilidade inicia seu desenvolvimento na infância. Por meio de amplos estudos antropológicos pioneiros, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Westermarck, 1891/1921</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">1906</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">1926</xref>), no fim do século XIX e início do século XX, constatou que a exposição íntima e a convivência familiar entre pessoas durante a infância enfraquecem a atração sexual quando adultas. Quando ocorre essa proximidade durante o período de desenvolvimento da infância, leva-se à aversão ao incesto, o que (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lumdsen e Wilson, 1980</xref>) apontaram como um mecanismo ou uma explicação causal para a aversão ao incesto. Segundo essas observações, a probabilidade do incesto (por exemplo, entre irmãos) é automaticamente diminuída por regras epigenéticas durante o desenvolvimento sexual. De acordo com (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Westermarck, 1891/1921</xref>): “Há uma aversão inata às relações sexuais entre pessoas que vivem intensamente próximas desde cedo, e que, como tais pessoas são na maioria dos casos parentes, esse sentimento se coloca principalmente como um horror ao intercurso sexual entre parentes próximos” (p. 320).</p>
			<p>O fato de que o contato familiar e duradouro na infância neutraliza uma atração sexual posterior, seja em pessoas com ou sem parentesco genético, precisou de mais evidências robustas. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Westermarck, 1906</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">1926</xref>) deu força a seus achados ao observar que pessoas que conviveram duradouramente juntas e em ambiente familiar, mesmo que não tivessem parentesco genético, quando se casaram apresentaram altas taxas de divórcio em relação a casamentos de pessoas que não sofreram a influência daquele fator.</p>
			<p>Quanto à institucionalização da proibição do incesto, notando que os tabus deste são comuns, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Freud, 1913/2012</xref>) desafiou a teoria de Westermarck a explicar por que as proibições existem para um comportamento que, aparentemente, ninguém está motivado a executar. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Westermarck, 1926</xref>) respondeu que tabus do incesto são consequências da nossa capacidade de experimentar ações dos outros como se fossem nossas - nós criamos as proibições, a fim de evitar que outras pessoas se engajem em comportamentos que consideraríamos aversivos caso fôssemos praticá-los nós mesmos. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Westermarck, 1906</xref>) se referiu à propensão de experimentar as ações desprazerosas dos outros como se elas fossem nossos próprios sentimentos aversivos, uma espécie de “empatia egocêntrica”. Para esse teórico as regras sociais que regulam a proibição do incesto dão expressão cultural a uma repugnância “biologicamente cultural” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler &amp; Navarrete, 2004</xref>).</p>
			<p>Em outros apontamentos, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Noble e Mason, 1978</xref>) consideram que o homem é distinto em relação às outras espécies em ter descartado mecanismos de proteção natural contra a endogamia, tipificado pela expulsão do jovem do grupo familiar. Na espécie humana, é comum que a prole se desenvolva por anos até a vida adulta com os pais, compondo um grupo familiar multigeracional. Nesse sentido, o modo pelo qual a defesa contra o incesto foi instituído se deu pela criação do tabu entre os membros da família. Outro argumento dos autores é de que o incesto confunde a autoridade familiar, o que fortalece o estatuto da proibição do intercurso sexual entre familiares.</p>
			<p>Somente na segunda metade do século passado, com o desenvolvimento da psicologia evolucionista e do fortalecimento dos estudos etológicos, é que os autores puderam dar maior suporte à teoria de Westermarck. Posteriormente ficou conhecida como efeito Westermarck, com robustas evidências experimentais de que a seleção natural favoreceu esse mecanismo como forma de impedir o incesto, estabelecendo a corresidência na infância como um indicador confiável de parentesco biológico. Para testar o efeito Westermarck, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Bevc e Silverman, 1993</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">2000</xref>) mostraram que a separação entre irmãos do sexo oposto durante os primeiros períodos da infância foi associada à ocorrência de experiências sexuais consensuais entre esses irmãos no período da vida adulta, o que dá suporte à hipótese de que a experiência infantil e a corresidência ajudam a inibir comportamentos incestuosos.</p>
			<p>Logo depois, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Lieberman, Tooby e Cosmides, 2003</xref>) trouxeram achados inéditos acerca do fator corresidência. Esses autores, conhecidos como o influente grupo de psicologia evolucionista da Escola de Santa Barbara, defenderam que a moralidade é influenciada pela evolução da espécie humana. Nesse estudo, a oposição ao incesto foi utilizada como meio para testar hipóteses sobre a existência de uma arquitetura funcional do sistema de reconhecimento de parentesco humano, um mecanismo similar possivelmente existente em outros animais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Holmes, 2004</xref>). O sistema de parentesco no humano serve preferencialmente a dois propósitos: (1) para regular a alocação de recursos altruístas e o esforço competitivo de acordo com as pressões de seleção e (2) para inibir o sexo entre familiares reprodutivamente maduros, porque as crianças geradas dessas uniões nasceriam menos saudáveis. Esse sistema inclui circuitos especializados em detectar certas pistas que foram de forma confiável correlacionadas ancestralmente com o parentesco genético. O sistema opera nessas pistas por mecanismos neurais que foram desenvolvidos para produzir variáveis regulatórias associadas a cada indivíduo conhecido, cuja magnitude corresponde ao parentesco genético (um estimador de parentesco). Durante a vida do indivíduo essa magnitude é captada como uma pista de entrada que regula comportamentos adaptativamente relevantes ao contexto do parentesco, como a alocação de recursos de assistência, inibição da violência e atração ou aversão sexual.</p>
			<p>Conforme salientaram (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Lieberman, Tooby e Cosmides, 2003</xref>), a evolução do sistema de reconhecimento de parentesco depende da seleção de pistas: (1) que fornecem informação probabilística que certamente prediz o parentesco; (2) que foram estáveis através das gerações em meio às adaptações e que (3) poderiam ser detectadas suficientemente a baixo custo. Nesse estudo, os autores fizeram um levantamento de 186 estudantes californianos, e pediram para os participantes classificarem em ordem 19 atos do menos ao mais moralmente errado; incluídos nessa lista estavam o sexo consensual entre irmãos do sexo oposto e o casamento entre irmãos de sexo oposto. Informações sobre a composição familiar foi coletada, incluindo a presença de pessoas do mesmo sexo e oposto, meio-irmãos na infância e na adolescência, a duração da corresidência, e as idades dos sujeitos durante o período de corresidência. De acordo com os resultados encontrados, a duração da corresidência apontou o parentesco genético, fazendo dela uma pista confiável do sistema de reconhecimento, além de identificar a intensidade de oposição ao incesto (o sistema de reconhecimento não é consciente, calibrado pela corresidência). Em outras palavras, o sistema humano de reconhecimento familiar usa a duração de corresidência como uma pista central para computar a estimativa de parentesco entre irmãos.</p>
			<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Lieberman, Tooby e Cosmides, 2003</xref>) concluíram, até então, que: (1) os seres humanos possuem um mecanismo de reconhecimento de parentesco que se baseia exclusivamente na proximidade durante a maturação como uma sugestão de parentesco; (2) congruente com a teoria de investimento parental, houve nos achados deles uma diferença entre os sexos no impacto dessa proximidade em atitudes em relação ao incesto, na medida em que as mulheres adquirem informações suficientes durante a infância para desenvolver uma aversão, enquanto a coleta de informações para os homens continua por um longo período de tempo; e (3) a cultura parece não influenciar as atitudes para com o incesto, uma vez que as avaliações dos participantes sobre inadequação moral do incesto são independentes das suas avaliações de suas próprias atitudes e das dos pais em relação ao comportamento sexual em geral, achado este que foi alvo de fortes críticas conforme exposto posteriormente.</p>
			<p>Quatro anos depois, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lieberman, Tooby e Cosmides, 2007</xref>) publicaram outro trabalho em que ampliaram o método anterior e com novos resultados. Eles adicionaram um eixo ao sistema de reconhecimento familiar, a saber, a associação perinatal maternal (APM), o que resultou em três eixos computacionais: (1) a duração da corresidência, (2) a APM e (3) a detecção de pistas sobre o parentesco genético. Os dois primeiros modulam o altruísmo e a aversão sexual. O modelo então passou a ser chamado de índice de parentesco (IP). Para calcular o índice de parentesco, o sistema de reconhecimento requer um circuito de monitoramento, para registrar sinais de parentesco, e um dispositivo computacional, o estimador de parentesco, cuja ação foi sintonizada pela história de seleção para registrar essas pistas e transformá-las no IP.</p>
			<p>Com a adição teórica da APM, os autores apontam que ancestralmente se o indivíduo observava uma criança em uma relação durável com sua própria mãe, então era altamente provável que a criança fosse filho dela. Em suma, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lieberman, Tooby e Cosmides, 2007</xref>) concluíram que o sistema de detecção de parentesco usa duas pistas distintas e ancestralmente válidas para computar o parentesco genético: associação perinatal maternal e duração de corresidência entre irmãos. Em pesquisa mais recente, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lieberman e Lobel, 2012</xref>) confirmaram que em indivíduos do sexo masculino a duração de corresidência com seus pares do sexo oposto na população kibbutzim israelense prevê maior autorrelato de aversão sexual a esses pares, corroborando os achados anteriores sobre a influência da corresidência infantil como um indicador confiável de parentesco biológico e como um mecanismo impeditivo do incesto.</p>
			<p>Outros estudos paralelos e independentes confirmaram e/ou expandiram alguns desses achados e também robustamente discordaram de alguns apontamentos. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler e Navarrete, 2004</xref>) abordaram a evitação do incesto a partir de componentes endógenos e exógenos, respectivamente representados por mecanismos de evitação que foram selecionados evolutivamente e por prescrições culturais que são internalizadas. Nesse estudo, indivíduos que experimentaram cossocialização com o irmão do sexo oposto reagiram mais fortemente ao comportamento incestuoso do que aqueles que não viveram aquela condição. Ademais, as mulheres com irmãos homens tiveram uma reação maior de aversão ao incesto do que as mulheres sem irmãos homens. Da mesma forma, homens com irmãs demonstraram maior aversão ao incesto do que aqueles que não tinham irmãs.</p>
			<p>Quanto às diferenças sexuais da aversão ao incesto, segundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler e Navarrete, 2004</xref>), mulheres reportaram maior aversão ao incesto quando comparadas aos homens, o que consistente com a teoria do investimento parental. Essa diferença não foi encontrada para homens e mulheres que não tinham irmãos. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Antfolk, Karlsson, Bäckström e Santtila, 2012</xref>) confirmaram os achados anteriores e mostraram que mulheres apresentaram maior aversão de nojo ao incesto do que homens. Nesse estudo, a aversão ao incesto foi maior entre parentes que apresentaram o fator de corresidência e, interessantemente, o incesto entre pais e filhos foi mais reprovável do que entre irmãos, sendo aquele tipo de relação incestuosa menos explorada nos outros estudos experimentais.</p>
			<p>Um recente trabalho com os Karo Batak do norte de Sumatra demonstrou que o efeito Westermarck em combinação com as dinâmicas culturais locais podem explicar a ocorrência rara do casamento entre primos cruzados matrilateralmente nessa cultura (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Kushnick &amp; Fessler, 2011</xref>). Esses autores enfatizaram o quanto é importante para os pesquisadores investigarem de forma pormenorizada as histórias pessoais de cossocialização e corresidência entre crianças, a fim de descobrir mecanismos adicionais para a aversão ao incesto que funcionam em nível amplo de regulação da cultura específica. Em outras culturas, dados coletados a partir de uma população de estudantes chineses também confirmaram os efeitos da duração de corresidência e da associação maternal perinatal sobre a aversão ao incesto entre irmãos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Luo, 2011</xref>).</p>
			<p>Além das pesquisas com questionários e autorrelatos, os métodos psicofisiológicos se tornam uma ferramenta potencialmente interessante para a investigação de aversão ao incesto, ainda mais porque as medidas psicofisiológicas são imediatas presumivelmente menos sujeitas aos vieses presentes nos questionários e autorrelatos. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Smet, Speybroeck e Verplaetse, 2014</xref>) usaram medidas psicofisiológicas para corroborar os efeitos da duração da corresidência e da associação maternal perinatal. Eles analisaram as respostas de 63 estudantes heterossexuais mulheres que viram imagens de atividades sexuais e não sexuais enquanto imaginavam realizar essas atividades ou com o parceiro ou com o irmão. Os resultados da eletromiografia facial mostraram que a duração de corresidência com o irmão se relacionou com a atividade de determinados músculos faciais que são altamente ativos quando o sujeito expressa a expressão facial de desgosto/nojo. A força dessas repostas foi prevista pela frequência de ter tomado banho e ter dividido o quarto com o irmão no período da primeira infância, sendo ambas as atividades pistas que informam sobre o parentesco uma vez que geralmente acontecem com crianças geneticamente relacionadas.</p>
			<p>É importante discutir as críticas de (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler e Navarrete, 2004</xref>) a alguns pontos de (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Lierberman, Tooby e Cosmides, 2003</xref>) uma vez que estes pontuaram um papel de pouca ou nenhuma influência da cultura. A fraqueza das medidas do trabalho desses autores é que eles usaram medidas indiretas. Porém, o argumento mais plausível de (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler e Navarrete, 2004</xref>) é que se os fatores exógenos não têm um papel importante na atitude contrária ao comportamento incestuoso, então os sujeitos que não experimentaram a cossocialização na infância deveriam ser indiferentes ao comportamento incestuoso dos outros, o que não é demonstrado claramente nas pesquisas. Então, o conhecimento socialmente transmitido influencia a crença dos outros sobre os sentimentos e atitudes em relação ao incesto.</p>
			<p>Os trabalhos iniciados por (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Lierberman, Tooby e Cosmides, 2003</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">2007</xref>) foram muito importantes para contrapor a ideia de que as atitudes morais em relação à atividade sexual entre parentes são respostas que se devem somente a normatizações culturais independentes de tendências/mecanismos psicológicos evoluídos. Por outro lado, o referido grupo minimizou a influência da cultura a um nível que pareceu desconsiderar que as tendências psicológicas evoluídas são em grande parte flexíveis e reagem ativamente com o ambiente em vigência. Na própria psicologia evolucionista há críticas à Escola de Santa Barbara e à forma como os influentes princípios (ambiente de adaptação evolutiva, gradualismo, massiva modularidade e natureza humana universal) desse grupo em psicologia evolucionista são interpretados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bolhuis, Brown, Richardson, &amp; Laland, 2011</xref>). Conforme (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler e Navarrete, 2004</xref>) e (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Kushnick e Fessler, 2011</xref>) demonstraram a atitude do sujeito em relação ao incesto é direcionada por dois fatores interativos: uma contribuição endógena produzida pelos mecanismos de evitação da endogamia e uma contribuição exógena produzida por prescrições culturais internalizadas que variam em graus de transmissão.</p>
			<p>Esses autores concordaram com Westermarck ao argumentar que proibições do incesto têm suas origens em reações espontâneas para outros indivíduos, reações que são melhores explicadas como um sistema que evoluiu porque inibe a endogamia. Como exposto, os autores adicionalmente reconhecem a importância do conhecimento socialmente transmitido sobre o incesto, de forma que a evitação deste não advém exclusivamente de uma habilidade inata. Isso levanta a questão de por que os seres humanos possuem uma propensão para as reações a terceiros de magnitude suficiente para dar origem a proibições institucionalizadas. Os autores então desenvolvem um quadro teórico para evitação do incesto expandindo o mecanismo de empatia egocêntrica, no qual, para o contexto do incesto, o medo, o nojo e o desgosto ocupam papel central. Esse mecanismo decorre do fato de que, quando os indivíduos se envolvem em atividades perigosas ou contaminantes, a exemplo do incesto, muitas vezes coloca em perigo os coexistentes da comunidade ou do grupo - da mesma forma quando alguém consome materiais ricos em patógenos, ou atrai a atenção de grandes predadores - o que traz doença ou predação para a comunidade.</p>
			<p>Em ambientes ancestrais evolutivos pode ter sido frequentemente vantajoso para o grupo ou para as lideranças do grupo intervir em comportamentos que causassem medo, desgosto e nojo nos outros e que no geral trouxessem riscos para o grupo, sendo uma reação compartilhada consequentemente. Dado que o nojo é uma reação emocional que evoluiu originalmente porque protege e evita patógenos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Curtis, Aunger, &amp; Rabie, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Fessler &amp; Navarrete, 2003a</xref>) e que subsequentemente foi estendida ao domínio do comportamento sexual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Fessler &amp; Navarrete, 2003b</xref>), é possível aplicar esse mecanismo ao contexto do incesto. As hipóteses sobre os mecanismos que evitam a endogamia e sobre o tabu do incesto exemplificam o poder dos processos evolutivos ao conformar a arquitetura mental da espécie humana e as restrições sobre as quais esses processos operam.</p>
			<p>Em suma, os estudos expostos até então em conjunto dão suporte ao efeito Westermarck e, de forma mais importante, evidenciam a existência de um mecanismo desenvolvimental na espécie humana que evoluiu para inibir a atividade sexual incestuosa (mecanismo endógeno) e sobre o qual as pessoas institucionalizaram culturalmente a proibição das relações incestuosas (mecanismo exógeno). Todavia, é importante ponderar que modelos de sistemas regulatórios de comportamentos de intercurso sexual entre familiares sofrem limitações. Em relação ao efeito Westermack, este pouco se aplica ao incesto entre pais (pai e mãe) e filhos, uma vez que o modelo considera que é necessário haver uma convivência íntima das partes na infância, por exemplo, em corresidência e cossocialização. Ou seja, em idades aproximadas no período de desenvolvimento infantil. Por esse motivo o poder explanatório do efeito Westermarck é satisfatório nos estudos com irmãos e primos. Então, permanecem menos esclarecidos os sistemas de evitação de incesto entre pais e filhos.</p>
			<p>Ademais, é razoável defender que o efeito Westermarck não é um mecanismo que independe totalmente do aprendizado. Embora Westermack tenha enfatizado a faceta inata da evitação (predisposição) do intercurso sexual entre parentes, o que é compreensível para uma época em que o debate sobre a dicotomia inato-aprendido era bastante intenso e rivalizado, o efeito da experiência e do conhecimento socialmente transmitido é importante para o mecanismo de evitação e subsequentemente constituinte da proibição institucionalizada. O efeito Westermarck é integrativo e não cinde biologia e cultura.</p>
			<p>Em outro nível de análise, se há fatores inibitórios e proibitivos do incesto, por que acontecem? Ainda que raro, o que direciona dois irmãos consanguíneos a se relacionarem sexualmente de forma voluntária e consentida, por exemplo? Excetuando-se os casos de incesto por abuso sexual (devido à própria natureza abusiva da relação e do caráter involuntário e não consentido em relação à vítima), as respostas não são claras. Conforme explicado anteriormente, a relação sexual entre pais e filhos e entre irmãos são a tipificação genuína do incesto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Thornhill, 1991</xref>). À medida que se inclui níveis mais distantes de parentesco, o conceito de incesto tende a se diluir. Os estudos disponíveis sobre os fatores que levam a relações sexuais e a casamentos consanguíneos na área da psicologia evolucionista focaram majoritariamente sobre casamentos entre primos. Apesar de não ser a casuística ideal para o incesto, pode oferecer indicativos importantes.</p>
			<p>Foi exposto antes que o casamento entre primos apresenta razões sociais relevantes para as partes, como a garantia de saber da história de vida do cônjuge antes do casamento, facilidade de acertar os dotes e bens da noiva e negociações pré-matrimoniais simplificadas. Sob a lente evolucionista, alguns estudos evidenciaram que a atividade sexual e o casamento entre os primos podem trazer soluções adaptativas de sobrevivência e de reprodução. Um dos achados mais importantes é que se observou que áreas com históricas altas taxas de prevalência de patógenos apresentaram maiores taxas de casamento consanguíneo entre primos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hoben, Buunk, Fincher, Thornhill, &amp; Schaller, 2010</xref>). Em outro estudo mais recente, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Hoben, Buunk e Fischer, 2016</xref>) demonstraram que a variância na prática de casamento consanguíneo entre primos pode refletir respostas funcionais a pressões ecológicas e ambientais locais. Os resultados apontaram que o isolamento geográfico e a alta prevalência de patógenos são fatores independentes e preditores da possibilidade de casamento entre primos de primeiro grau. Parece que casar-se com um primo pode potencialmente aumentar a probabilidade de que os genes que são necessários para lutar contra os patógenos locais sejam expressos na prole subsequente, ainda que os envolvidos não estejam livres dos riscos da endogamia. Dessa forma, o casamento entre primos será um comportamento que tende a ser exibido em áreas geograficamente isoladas e com alta prevalência de patógenos, o que constitui uma solução adaptativa para o problema de solução de parceiros, dependendo do ambiente onde vive a população. Provavelmente essa estratégia não seja benéfica para a endogamia incestuosa entre pais e filhos e entre irmãos devido aos maiores riscos da endogamia.</p>
			<p>É possível fazer outro apontamento que, embora careça de evidências robustas, pode ajudar a explanar o problema. É razoável pensar que esses casamentos entre primos podem ser a solução mais adaptativa sob condições nas quais há uma falta de diversidade de parceiros devido ao isolamento geográfico? Parece que sim. Em uma perspectiva evolucionista, talvez seja melhor se relacionar com um primo e correr os riscos da endogamia do que não se casar com ninguém e, afinal, não se reproduzir (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Hoben, Buunk, &amp; Fischer, 2016</xref>).</p>
			<p>Os achados discutidos até então reforçam a proposta integradora no que diz respeito às velhas dicotomias e conflitos na história da psicologia, da antropologia e da biologia, como o debate natureza-cultura, aprendido-inato ou biológico-social. O tabu do incesto é um exemplo que ajuda a superar esses conflitos: na espécie humana, natureza e cultura não são cindidas. A sexualidade e o comportamento sexual dos humanos são evidentemente influenciados por uma combinação complexa de fatores biológicos, evolucionistas, psicológicos e socioculturais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Shor, 2015</xref>). A dissolução dessas dicotomias vai ao encontro de autores que se identificam com a teoria de sistemas de desenvolvimento (TSD), a qual tem ganhado bastante força na psicologia evolucionista (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Oyama, Gray, &amp; Griffiths, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Ingold, 2001</xref>). A TSD vê a ontogenia como ciclos contingentes da interação entre um conjunto variado de recursos de desenvolvimento, como o DNA, a estrutura celular, o funcionamento cerebral e os fatores sociais e ecológicos.</p>
			<p>Aplicando a natureza multidimensional desse tema aos principais pontos da TSD, pode-se destacar: (1) a determinação conjunta por múltiplas causas (a evitação e a proibição do incesto são influenciadas por fatores biológicos, psicológicos e sociais); (2) a significância da causa da evitação e da proibição do incesto como contingente ao sistema; (3) a herança estendida (os fatores que o ser humano herda relacionados à evitação do incesto interagem com o ambiente) e (4) evoluir como construção, isto é, a evolução não é uma questão de organismos ou populações sendo moldadas tão-somente por seus ambientes, mas de sistemas de organismo-ambiente mudando ao longo do tempo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lewontin, 2001</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Correlatos neurobiológicos da moralidade e do incesto</title>
			<p>Nas últimas décadas, o desenvolvimento e a sofisticação das técnicas de neuroimagem permitiram a realização de alguns estudos no campo da neurociências a respeito de questões morais da sexualidade humana, o que inclui as relações incestuosas. Há indicações na literatura de que emoções relacionadas a experiências sociais são mais lateralizadas pelo hemisfério esquerdo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Ross, Homan, &amp; Buck, 1994</xref>). Foram identificadas redes neurais associadas ao processamento de estímulos morais, como córtex pré-frontal medial, junção temporo-parietal, córtex cingulado posterior e lobo temporal anterior (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Greene, Nystrom, Engell, Darley, &amp; Cohen, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Moll, Zahn, Oliveira-Sousa, Krueger, &amp; Grafman, 2005</xref>).</p>
			<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cope et al., 2010</xref>) avaliaram até que ponto os circuitos neurais subjacentes aos julgamentos imorais mostram lateralização hemisférica. Pela análise de estudos que empregaram diferentes paradigmas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Harenski, Antonenko, Shane, &amp; Kiehl, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Schaich Borg, Lieberman, &amp; Kiehl, 2008</xref>), os autores evidenciaram que o processamento de estímulos imorais, incluindo os incestuosos, é um processo mais lateralizado pelo hemisfério esquerdo do que pelo direito. As regiões de recrutamento comuns aos achados incluíam o córtex medial pré-frontal esquerdo, a junção temporoparietal esquerda e o córtex cingulado posterior esquerdo.</p>
			<p>Em outras linhas de pesquisa, sabe-se que há maior propensão de comportamento pró-social para faces que carregam semelhanças (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Volk &amp; Quinsey, 2007</xref>). As pessoas podem inconscientemente fazer comparações dos traços faciais, expressões e aparências pelas representações cognitivas de seu próprio rosto e de sua família. Achados evidenciam um mecanismo neurocognitivo de reconhecimento facial que ajuda na discriminação do parentesco com correlatos de ativação cerebral frontoparietal direita (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Platek et al., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Uddin, Kaplan, Molnar-Szakacs, Zaidel, &amp; Iacoboni, 2005</xref>). Faces que se assemelham à face do indivíduo ativam similarmente substratos neurais ativados por faces de parentes. Assim, a semelhança facial é considerada uma pista para o parentesco genético. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Platek e Kemp, 2009</xref>) compararam faces de parentes a faces de amigos e encontraram uma maior ativação da região do cingulado anterior e do cuneus. Outras regiões mediais parietais e frontais foram recrutadas nas categorizações de semelhanças e diferenças entre faces de parentes e faces de outras relações. Os autores concluíram que áreas cerebrais, como os substratos visuais, frontais e mediais, estão envolvidas na coordenação de múltiplos sistemas envolvidos na discriminação de parentes. Áreas da região medial posterior podem estar envolvidas na categorização facial (família ou amigo, por exemplo) quando as faces são parecidas ou expressam algum nível de familiaridade.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Considerações éticas e legais </title>
			<p>Além dos fatores psicobiológicos e psicossociais discutidos anteriormente, o incesto levanta questões éticas e legais quando praticado de forma que prejudique ou lese a integridade de pessoas, especialmente quando há formas abusivas de coação e sem consentimento. O incesto entre um adulto e uma pessoa abaixo da idade de consentimento é considerado uma forma de abuso sexual infantil, o qual é identificado como umas das formas mais extremas desse tipo de abuso e que geralmente resulta em sérios e duradouros traumas psicológicos (especialmente se for um caso de incesto entre pais e filhos). O risco de um incesto entre padrasto e enteada é 15 vezes maior do que entre pai e filha biológicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Sariola &amp; Uutela, 1996</xref>). Filhas vítimas de incesto do pai apresentam problemas com estima sexual, sintomatologia depressiva e sofrimento psicológico. A idade de início desse tipo de incesto é precoce, com estimativas dos 5 aos 8 anos de idade para a filha. Mais de 80% das vítimas se sentem distantes de ambos os pais ou apenas do genitor masculino, indicando comprometimento de apego (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Stroebel et al., 2012</xref>). Em um estudo brasileiro, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Flores, Mattos e Salzano, 1998</xref>) mostraram que 74% dos casos de incesto envolviam violência no ambiente doméstico e que outros fatores complexos do contexto familiar (extrema pobreza e dificuldades nas interações sociais) também moldavam esses casos.</p>
			<p>Embora o incesto entre pai e filha tenha sido considerado por muitos anos a forma mais comum de incesto, mais recentemente tem-se sugerido que o incesto entre irmãos, particularmente de irmãos mais velhos tendo relações sexuais com irmãos mais novos, é a forma mais comum de incesto. De forma mais importante, tem implicações negativas maiores, pois há uma escolha dos irmãos mais velhos pelos irmãos mais novos, abuso das vítimas por um longo período, uso da violência mais frequente e severamente do que quando usada por adultos e com maior número de atos sexuais com penetração quando comparados a abusos cometidos por pais ou padrastos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cyr, Wright, McDuff, &amp; Perron, 2002</xref>). (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Bevc, 1988</xref>) constatou que os entrevistados que tiveram experiências sexuais com irmãos tendem a vir de classe socioeconômica mais baixa; eles também mudam de residência com mais frequência, têm menos amigos e experimentam maiores conflitos familiares do que os entrevistados que não tiveram experiências sexuais com irmãos.</p>
			<p>Quanto ao consentimento legal entre adultos, jurisprudências e leis sobre o intercurso sexual consentido entre parentes próximos variam entre os países e dependem especialmente da natureza da relação familiar das partes envolvidas, bem como da idade. Na maior parte dos países, pela sua proibição jurídico-institucional, familiares próximos não podem registrar uniões em cartório, nem em igrejas (nesta devido à concepção de pecado da prática incestuosa), inclusive sendo passível de julgamento e punição a prática incestuosa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Bittles, 2012</xref>). É notável que diferente da maior parte dos países, como Estados Unidos, no Brasil o incesto não é proibido juridicamente (não é previsto no Código Penal), isto é, não constitui crime se estes envolvidos forem maiores de idade. Contudo, não deixa de sofrer a regulação cultural que o proíbe simbolicamente: a sociedade brasileira reprova, as religiões judaico-cristãs reforçam essa ojeriza.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Considerações finais </title>
			<p>Conforme discutido, os recentes trabalhos no campo da psicologia evolucionista, da etologia, das neurociências e de ramos da antropologia contrariam o posicionamento tradicional de que a proibição do incesto é um fenômeno estritamente sociocultural e que não é influenciado por fatores psicobiológicos presentes na evolução do comportamento humano. As evidências apontam, ao contrário, a existência de mecanismos psicobiológicos que evoluíram porque inibem a atividade sexual entre parentes (mecanismos endógenos de inibição da endogamia) e que formam a base para institucionalização da proibição do incesto e para sua regulação social e cultural (mecanismo exógeno). O efeito Westermarck se apresenta como uma janela teórica importante que congrega essas dimensões e ajuda a explicar o binômio evitação-proibição do incesto.</p>
		</sec>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>ORIGINAL ARTICLES</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Incest avoidance and prohibition: psychobiological and cultural factors</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Holanda</surname>
						<given-names>Francisco Wilson Nogueira</given-names>
						<suffix>Júnior</suffix>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Psicologia. Natal, RN, Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2">
					<label>*</label>Corresponding addresses: <email>franciscowilson3@hotmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Although historically the incest prohibitive regulation is considered an almost ubiquitous cultural phenomenon that is not influenced by psychobiological factors related to the evolutionary history of human species, recent findings have challenged this traditional view and argued that the incest avoidance and prohibition are influenced by biological and cognitive factors along with cultural regulation. This article aims to develop a theoretical discussion about incest prohibition and avoidance, emphasizing the evolutionary mechanisms underlying these phenomena. One argues the existence of endogenous mechanisms that have evolved for inhibiting sexual activity between close relatives and form the basis to regulate the incest prohibition (exogenous mechanism) socially. The Westermarck effect is highlighted, in which the close proximity of persons living together from early childhood triggers sexual intercourse aversion between them. The absence of disposition to incest and its institutional prohibition represent a complex integration between psychobiological and cultural factors.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>incest</kwd>
				<kwd>avoidance</kwd>
				<kwd>prohibition</kwd>
				<kwd>evolution</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>Incest is defined as the practice of sexual intercourse between persons with degrees of kinship, which may be a short or long-term relationship, with or without generation of children (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Lumsden &amp; Wilson, 1980</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Read, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Tidefors, Arvidsson, Ingevaldson, &amp; Larsson, 2010</xref>). Historically, the social incest regulation, which in general culminates in prohibition, also known as incest taboo, has been considered culturally universal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Noble &amp; Mason, 1978</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Wolf &amp; Durham, 2004</xref>). Although the wide dissemination of this prohibition gives an idea of ubiquity, there are occurrences of incest registered in some societies, what includes the permitted and sexual abuse cases (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">DeMause, 1991</xref>). The prohibitive rules carry some particularities related to society and historical context, despite there being common prohibitive typifications: it is more probable that in current societies the sexual intercourse between parents and children and between siblings is socially, morally or legally prohibited with universal scope (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Sanderson, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Shepher, 1983</xref>). In contrast, some societies encourage the marriage between cousins (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Hoben, Buunk, &amp; Fischer, 2016</xref>). It is discussed thus whether the social rules against incest are universal, or as (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Thornill, 1991</xref>) suggests more properly, almost universal.</p>
				<p>In ancient societies, as the Egyptians and Incas, incest has occurred to protect the real blood, even between brothers and sisters, and cases in ancient Jewish peoples (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Kutz, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Strong, 2006</xref>). In the last few decades, the greatest rates of consanguineous marriages have been observed in North Africa, Middle East and in great portion of Central and South Asia, where more than 25% world population live. The unions between cousins, especially of second degree, are responsible for ≥50% consanguineous marriages in those populations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Zlotogora, Hujerat, Barges, Shalev, &amp; Chakravarti, 2007</xref>). The consanguineous second and third degrees marriages offer advantages such as strengthening of familiar bounds and relationships, guarantee of knowing the consort’s life history before marriage, facility to make the dowry and goods agreement and simplified pre-matrimonial negotiations.</p>
				<p>The incest conceptual boundaries can vary according to the field of study or reference. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Thornhill, 1991</xref>) formulates that behaviors referred to as incestuous in social sciences literature can be divided into three categories: incestuous endogamy, which is concerned to sexual intercourse between individuals with family relationship, that is, whose kinship is by direct descent (for instance, between parents and children or between siblings); the non-incestuous endogamy, which encompasses the sexual intercourse between individuals with more distant kinship (between cousins, for instance); and the sexual activity coming from the adultery between persons without genetic kinship in the familiar context (stepson and stepmother, for instance).</p>
				<p>What (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Thornhill, 1991</xref>) classifies as incestuous endogamy seems to more robustly delimit the incest conceptual core as the sexual intercourse between close relatives (between parents and children, between siblings), since that type of sexual intercourse leads to greater probability of defective offspring due to the greater chances of receiving a harmful recessive allele inherited from a common ancestral. It is worth mentioning that endogamy and incest are terms that have been more commonly used in biological and social sciences, respectively, many times imprecisely (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Moore, 1992</xref>). (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Leavitt, 1990</xref>) demonstrates that it is not simple to differentiate them, since both terms designate superficially the sexual activity between individuals with close kinship degrees. Specifically, endogamy is linked to the idea of reproduction between the individuals with kinship, whereas incest emphasizes the sexual activity that may or not generate offspring. Regarding especially the human species, the sexual activity not always leads to offspring generation. The term incest has been more used in studies on human beings, besides reaching in this species the cultural variable of the prohibition institutionalization (incest taboo).</p>
				<p>From the differentiation aforementioned of (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Thornhill, 1991</xref>), the term incest will be treated here as reference to the incestuous endogamy classification. The prohibition of sexual intercourse between siblings or parents and children carries the smallest occurrence of this modality of kinship relationship, being understood that those are the genuine type of incest, in which social prohibitions act more strongly when compared with the relationships between relatives of second or third degrees (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Saggar &amp; Bittles, 2008</xref>).</p>
				<p>According to a traditional portion of social sciences, the universality (or almost universality) of the incest prohibition is predicated on a social-cultural basis that is independent from psychobiological processes compounding the evolutionary history of the human species (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Hoebel &amp; Frost, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Wolf &amp; Durham, 2004</xref>). This approach emphasizes that the incest is socially interdict, once it somehow jeopardizes the social order. In this direction, according to (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Lévi-Strauss, 1976</xref>), the incest prohibition expresses the passage from the natural fact of consanguinity to the cultural fact of alliance. One considers, in this paradigm, the reasons that turn the incest into something socially inconceivable and how it becomes regulated by culture to the detriment of nature.</p>
				<p>On the other hand, adopting a perspective that considers only either cultural or environmental variable of certain human beings’ behavior, such as sexual behavior, results in falling into obsolete biology vs culture or innate vs learned dichotomies and neglecting that it is possible to describe, at least partially, the problems and adaptive solutions faced by the species ancestors. The evolutionary psychology has the integration between biological and sociocultural factors as one of its transversal pillars. If the human beings produce culture and represent themselves in it, the reason for doing it is that they are biologically cultural (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hattori &amp; Yamamoto, 2012</xref>).</p>
				<p>In literature on incestuous behavior, traditional theoreticians have focused on the incest cultural prohibition (exogenous mechanism), not considering other human species’ mechanism equally important and complementary, which consists in the individual rejection to incest (endogenous mechanism of endogamy inhibition). There was negligence to psychobiological and evolutionary explanations for the incest prohibition and rejection, that is, the cognitive human architecture probably has a circuit that evolves because prohibits the sexual activity between individuals with genetic kinship and the incest institutional regulation does not occur exclusively by sociocultural channel (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Lieberman, Tooby, &amp; Cosmides, 2003</xref>, 2007).</p>
				<p>Only recognizing that the incest prohibition is almost universal does not answer why this phenomenon presents such nature or the reason for the human beings also presenting rejection, avoidance or inhibition regarding incestuous relationships. Thus, there are two but integrated distinct levels: prohibition and avoidance. As (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Searle, 2013</xref>) has pointed, inhibition does not mean prohibition, and vice-versa. Better saying, the absence of inclination to sexual relationship between relatives does not explain the almost universal prohibition of this kind of relationship nor does the institutionalized prohibition explain the reason for human beings rejecting incestuous relationships. Why is there a taboo regarding incest and which is its relation with the human species evolution? What is in the taboo center? Why are there prohibitions of a behavior that, apparently, nobody is motivated to have?</p>
				<p>Based on literature experimental findings, on recent works in the field of evolutionary psychology, on ethology and neurosciences, this work aims to perform a theoretical discussion on incest inhibition and prohibition, emphasizing the evolutionary mechanisms underlying these phenomena as well as the biological basis, cognitive, behavioral and social aspects involved in the incest taboo. One will expose discussion topics on biological implications of the incestuous sexual relationship, evolutionary mechanisms of incest inhibition and prohibition based on the evolutionary psychology, neurobiological correlatives of morality and incest and ethical and legal considerations.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Biological implication of incest: the risks of endogamy</title>
				<p>Frequently it is considered that incest is morally wrong for its undesirable biological consequences coming from sexual relationship between biological relatives (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Bittles, 2012</xref>). Offspring originating from first degree consanguineous relationships is 17%-40% more likely to suffer diseases or death when compared with children born from non-consanguineous relationships (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Aoki, 2004</xref>). It is known that in cases of endogamy between father and daughter, a possible diagnosis of an autosomal recessive disorder in an offspring resulting from this relationship is associated with a probability greater than 50% that the endogamy was causal for the offspring disease (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Schmidtke &amp; Krawczak, 2010</xref>). Other data are more conservative and point 30% probability (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Saggar &amp; Bittles, 2008</xref>).</p>
				<p>Reduced aptitude for consanguineous children, referred to as endogamous depression, has been explained as being due to this probability increase of harmful combinations of the recessive homozygous alleles and to the susceptibility increase to organisms that cause the disease (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Bittles &amp; Neel, 1994</xref>). Although the endogamous depression acts as inhibitor mechanism for people not to commit incest, justifying their social and moral reprobation, it is a factor with explanatory limitations when considered in isolation. This kind of endogenous inhibition does not apply to incest between relatives of the same sex, because there is not offspring generation, and, more importantly, does not explain why the incest is avoided even regarding non-biological siblings, without genetic kinship, raised together (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler &amp; Navarrete, 2004</xref>). With genetic kinship or not, siblings that are raised together have smaller chances to marry or have children, and when marry, they get divorced in a rate greater than couples without any kind of kinship; they present low rate of generation of children and more extramarital relationships (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">McCabe, 1983</xref>). The mechanism of endogamous depression alone cannot explain the incest taboo, because it lacks behavioral and cognitive components that present evolutionary history in human species, according to what is exposed below.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Evolutionary incest inhibition and prohibition mechanisms</title>
				<p>The proposition that the human species has a mechanism that has evolved to inhibit incest and that such ability has its development during the childhood is not recent. Through broad pioneer anthropological studies, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Westermarck, 1891/1921</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">1906</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">1926</xref>), in the late 19th and early 20th, has verified that intimate exposition and family living among people during childhood weaken the sexual attraction when in adulthood. When this proximity occurs during the childhood development period leads to the incest aversion, what (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Lumdsen and Wilson, 1980</xref>) have pointed as a mechanism or causal explanation for the incest aversion. According to those observations, incest probability (between siblings, for instance), is automatically decreased by epigenetic rules during the sexual development. According to (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Westermarck, 1981/1921</xref>): “There is an innate aversion to sexual intercourse between persons living very closely together from early youth, and that, as such persons are in most cases related, this feeling displays itself chiefly as a horror of intercourse between near kin” (p. 320).</p>
				<p>The fact that familiar and lasting contact in childhood neutralizes a posterior sexual attraction, in persons with or without kinship, needed more robust evidence. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Westermarck, 1906</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">1926</xref>) has given strength to his findings by observing that people who have lived together for a long time in a family environment, even if they did not have genetic kinship, when married have presented high rates of divorce in relation to marriages of people that have not suffered influence from that factor.</p>
				<p>Regarding the institutionalization of the incest prohibition, noticing that this kind of taboo is common, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Freud, 1913/2012</xref>) has challenged Westermarck theory to explain why the prohibitions exist for a behavior that, apparently, nobody is motivated to have. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Westermarck, 1926</xref>) has answered that incest taboos are a consequence of our capacity to try others’ actions as they were ours - we create the prohibitions in order to avoid that other people have behaviors that we would consider aversive in case we practiced them ourselves. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Westermarck, 1906</xref>) has referred to the disposition to experiment undesirable actions of others as if they were our proper aversive feelings, as a kind of “egocentric empathy”. For this theoretician, the social rules that regulate the incest prohibition give cultural expression to a “biologically cultural” repugnance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler &amp; Navarrete, 2004</xref>).</p>
				<p>In other notes, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Noble and Mason, 1978</xref>) consider that man is distinct in relation to other species for having discarded natural protection mechanisms against endogamy, typified by the expulsion of the youth from the family group. In human species it is common that the offspring develop for years being with the parents, compounding a multi-generational group. In this sense, the defense against incest has been developed by the creation of the taboo between the family members. Other authors’ argument is that incest confuses the family authority, what strengths the statute of prohibition of sexual intercourse between family members.</p>
				<p>Only in the second half of the past century, with the development of the evolutionary psychology and the strengthening of ethological studies, the authors could give more support for Westermarck theory. Posteriorly, it was known as Westermarck effect, with robust experimental evidence that the natural selection has favored this mechanism as a way to avoid incest, establishing the coresidence as a biological kinship reliable indicator. To test the Westermarck effect, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Bevc and Silverman, 1993</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">2000</xref>) have shown that the separation of siblings of opposite gender during the childhood first periods has been associated to the occurrence of consensual sexual experiences between those siblings in adulthood, what supports the hypothesis that the child experience and the coresidence help inhibit incestuous behaviors.</p>
				<p>Soon after, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Lieberman, Tooby and Cosmides, 2003</xref>) have brought unpublished findings on the coresidence factor. These authors, known as the influent group of evolutionary psychology from the school of Santa Barbara, defend that morality is influenced by the human species evolution. In this study, the opposition to incest has been used as a means to test hypotheses on the existence of a human kinship system recognition functional architecture, a similar mechanism possibly existing in other animals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Holmes, 2004</xref>). The kinship system in the human being is intended, preferably, to two purposes: (1) regulate the allocation of natural altruist resources and the competitive effort according to the selection pressure and (2) inhibit sexual intercourse between reproductively mature family members, because children generated from such unions would born less healthy. Such system includes circuits specialized in detecting certain tracks that have been reliably correlated ancestrally with the genetic kinship. The system operates on those tracks through neural mechanisms that have been developed to produce regulatory variables associated to every individual known, whose magnitude corresponds to the genetic kinship (an estimator of kinship). Throughout the individual’s life this magnitude is captured as an input track that regulates behaviors adaptively relevant for the kinship context, such as the allocation of assistance resources, violence inhibition and sexual attraction or aversion.</p>
				<p>As (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Lieberman, Tooby and Cosmides, 2003</xref>) have emphasized, the evolution of the kinship recognition system depends on the selection of tracks that: (1) provide probabilistic information that certainly predicts the kinship; (2) have been stable throughout generations midst the adaptations and (3) could be sufficiently detected at low cost. In this study, the authors have made a survey of 186 Californian students, and asked the participants to set 19 acts in order, from the less to the most morally wrong; consensual sexual intercourse and marriage between siblings of opposite gender have been included in this list. Information on the familiar composition has been collected, including the presence of people of same and opposite genders, half-siblings in the childhood and adolescence, coresidence duration, and the ages of the subjects during the coresidence period. According to the results found, the coresidence duration has pointed the genetic kinship, making it a reliable track of the recognition system, besides identifying the intensity of opposition to incest (the recognition system is not aware, calibrated by the coresidence). In other words, the human familiar recognition system uses the coresidence duration as a central track to compute the estimate of kinship between siblings.</p>
				<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Lieberman, Tooby and Cosmides, 2003</xref>) have concluded, until then, that (1) human beings have a kinship recognition system that is based on the proximity throughout the maturation as a kinship suggestion; (2) congruent with the parental investment theory, in their findings there was a difference between the genders regarding the impact of such proximity in attitudes related to incest, since women acquire enough information during the childhood to develop aversion, whereas the information collection for men lasts for long time; and (3) the culture seems not to influence the attitudes regarding incest, since the participants’ evaluations on incest moral inappropriateness are independent from their attitudes and their parents’ attitudes evaluations in relation to sexual behavior in general, finding that has been subject to several critiques according to the previously exposed.</p>
				<p>Four years later, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lieberman, Tooby and Cosmides, 2007</xref>) published other work in which amplified the previous method, and with new results. They have added an axis to the kinship recognition system, that is, the maternal perinatal association (MPA), what has resulted in three computational axes: (1) coresidence duration; (2) the MPA and (3) the tracks detection on the genetic kinship. The first two modulate the altruism and the sexual aversion. The model then started being called kinship index (KI). To calculate the kinship index, the recognition system requires a monitoring system to register kinship signals, and a computational device, the kinship estimator, whose action has been tined by selection history to register these tracks and turn them into the KI.</p>
				<p>With the theoretical MPA addition, the authors indicate that ancestrally, if the individual observed a child in a lasting relationship with his own mother, then it was highly likely that the child was her own child. In summary, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Lieberman, Tooby and Cosmides, 2007</xref>) have concluded that kinship detection system uses two distinct tracks, ancestrally valid to compute the genetic kinship: maternal perinatal association and coresidence duration between the siblings. In other more recent research, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Lieberman and Lobel, 2012</xref>) have confirmed that in male individuals the coresidence duration with their opposite gender pairs in the Israeli kibbutzim population predicts greater self-report of sexual aversion to those pairs, corroborating the previous findings on the influence of the childhood coresidence as reliable indicator of biological kinship, and a mechanism that impedes incest.</p>
				<p>Other parallel and independent studies have confirmed and/or expanded some of these findings and have also robustly disagreed with some notes. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler &amp; Navarrete, 2004</xref>) have approached the incest avoidance from endogenous and exogenous components, respectively represented by avoidance mechanisms that have been selected evolutionarily and by internalized cultural prescriptions. In this study, individuals that experiment co-socializations with other gender sibling have reacted more strongly to the incestuous behavior than those that have not experienced that condition. Moreover, women with brothers have a stronger aversion reaction to incest than women without brothers. In the same way, men with sisters have demonstrated stronger aversion to incest than the ones that do not have sisters.</p>
				<p>Regarding the gender differences of the incest aversion, according to (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler &amp; Navarrete, 2004</xref>), women have reported stronger aversion to incest when compared with men, what is in accordance with the parental investment theory. Such difference has not been found for men and women that do not have siblings. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Antfolk, Karlsson, Bäckström and Santtila, 2012</xref>) have confirmed the previous findings and shown that women presented stronger incest aversion than men. In this study, the incest aversion was stronger between relatives that presented the coresidence factor and, interestingly, incest between fathers and daughters has been more condemnable than between siblings, being that type of incestuous relationship less explored in other experimental studies.</p>
				<p>A recent study in Karo Batak, North of Sumatra, has demonstrated that the Westermarck effect combined with local cultural dynamic may explain the rare occurrence of matrilateral cross cousin marriage in this culture (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Kushnick &amp; Fessler, 2011</xref>). These authors have emphasized how it is important for the researchers to study the details of personal histories of co-socialization and coresidence between children, in order to discover additional mechanisms for the incest aversion that work at wide regulation level of the specific culture. In other cultures, data collected from certain Chinese students population have also confirmed the effects of the coresidence duration and maternal perinatal association on the incest aversion between siblings (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Luo, 2011</xref>).</p>
				<p>In addition to the researches with questionnaires and self-reports, the psychophysiological methods turn into a potentially interesting tool for the investigation of incest aversion, even more because the psychophysiological measures are immediate and presumably less subject to biases present in the questionnaires and self-reports. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Smet, Speybroeck and Verplaetse, 2014</xref>) have used psychophysiological measures to corroborate the effects of the coresidence duration and maternal perinatal association. They have analyzed the answers from 63 heterosexual women students that have seen sexual and not sexual activity images while imagining to perform these activities whether the partner or the brothers. The electromyography results have shown that the duration of coresidence with the brother has been related to the activity of certain facial muscles that are highly active when the subject presents the facial distaste/disgust expression. The strength of those answers has been predicted by the frequency of having taken a shower and shared the bedroom with the brother in the first childhood period, being both activities tracks that inform on the kinship, since they generally occur with children genetically related.</p>
				<p>It is important to discuss the critiques from (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler and Navarrete, 2004</xref>) to some points of Lierberman, Tooby and Cosmides (2003), once they have represented small or no influence from culture. The weakness of these authors’ work measures is that they have used indirect measures. However, the most plausible argument of (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler and Navarrete, 2004</xref>) is that if the exogenous factors have not had an important role in the attitude opposite to the incestuous behavior, then the subjects that have not tried the co-socialization in childhood should be indifferent to the incestuous behavior of others, what is not clearly demonstrated in the researches. Thus, the knowledge socially transmitted influences the others’ belief on the feelings and attitudes regarding incest.</p>
				<p>The works initiated by Lierberman, Tooby and Cosmides (2003, 2007) have been highly important for confronting the idea that moral attitudes regarding sexual activity between relatives are answers due only to cultural normalizations independent from psychological tendencies/mechanisms evolved. On the other hand, the mentioned group has minimized the influence of culture to a level that seemed to ignore that psychological tendencies evolved are largely flexible and react actively with the present environment. Within the evolutionary psychology itself there are critiques to the Santa Barbara school and to how this group’s influent principles (environment of evolutionary adaptation, gradualism, massive modularity and universal human nature) in evolutionary psychology are interpreted (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bolhuis, Brown, Richardson, &amp; Laland, 2011</xref>). As (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Fessler and Navarrete, 2004</xref>) and (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Kushnick and Fessler, 2011</xref>) have demonstrated, the subject’s attitude in relation to incest is guided by two interactive factors, namely: an endogenous contribution produced by the mechanisms of endogamy avoidance and an exogenous contribution produced by internalized cultural prescriptions that vary in transmission degrees.</p>
				<p>These authors have agreed with Westermarck by arguing that incest prohibitions have their origin in spontaneous reactions for the others, reactions that are better explained as a system that has evolved because inhibits endogamy. As exposed, the authors additionally recognize the importance of the knowledge of incest socially transmitted, so that its avoidance does not come exclusively from an innate ability. This raises the question about the reason human beings have propensity to reactions to third parties of enough magnitude to originate institutionalized prohibitions. The authors have been developing a theoretical frame for incest avoidance expanding the egocentric empathy mechanism, in which, for the incest context, fear, disgust and displeasure occupy a central role. This mechanism comes from the fact that when the individuals are involved in dangerous activities that contaminate, incest for instance, many times put in danger the coexistent elements of the community or group - in the same way when somebody consumes pathogen-rich materials, or attracts attention from great predators -, what brings disease or predation to the community.</p>
				<p>In ancestral evolutionary environments, it might have been frequently advantageous for the group or group leaderships to intervene on behaviors that caused fear, disgust and displeasure to others and that generally brought risks to the group, it being a consequently shared reaction. Given that the disgust is an emotional reaction that has evolved originally because protects and avoids pathogens (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Curtis, Aunger, &amp; Rabie, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Fessler &amp; Navarrete, 2003a</xref>), and that subsequently has been extended to the sexual behavior scope (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Fessler &amp; Navarrete, 2003b</xref>), it is possible to apply this mechanism to the incest context. The hypotheses on the mechanisms that avoid the endogamy and on the incest taboo exemplify the power of the evolutionary process when confronting the human species mental architecture and the restriction on which these processes operate.</p>
				<p>In short, the studies exposed until now support the Westermarck effect and, more importantly, evidence the existence of a developmental mechanism in human species that has evolved to inhibit the incestuous sexual activity (endogenous mechanism) and on which the people have culturally institutionalized the incestuous relationships prohibitions (exogenous mechanism). Nevertheless, it is important to ponder which models of behavior regulatory systems of sexual intercourse between relatives suffer limitations. In relation to the Westermarck effect, this is little applied to incest between parents (father and mother) and children, since the model considers it is necessary an intimate living of the parties in childhood, for instance, in coresidence and co-socialization. In other words, at close ages in the child development period. For this reason, the explanatory power of the Westermarck effect is satisfactory in the studies with siblings and cousins. However, the systems of incest avoidance between parents and children remain less enlightened.</p>
				<p>Moreover, it is reasonable to defend that the Westermarck effect is not a mechanism totally independent from learning. Although Westermack has emphasized the avoidance innate facet (predisposition) of sexual intercourse between relatives, what is comprehensible for a time in which the debate on the innate-learned dichotomy was very intense and rivaled, the effect of the experience and knowledge socially transmitted is important for the mechanism of avoidance and subsequently component of the institutionalized prohibition. The Westermarck effect is integrative and does not separate biology and culture.</p>
				<p>At other analysis level, if there are inhibitory and prohibitive factors, why do those happen? Even rare, what guides two consanguineous siblings to engage in voluntary and consensual sexual relationship, for instance? Except for the cases of incest due to sexual abuse (for the abusive nature of the relationship and of the involuntary and not consensual character regarding the victim), the answers are not clear. As previously explained, the sexual intercourse between parents and children are the genuine incest typification (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Thornhill, 1991</xref>). As more distant kinship degrees are included, the incest concept tends to dilute. The available studies on the factors that lead to consanguineous sexual intercourses and marriages in the area of evolutionary psychology have focused on marriages between cousins. Although it is not the ideal casuistry for incest, it may offer important indicatives.</p>
				<p>It was previously exposed that marriage between cousins presents social reasons for the parties, such as guarantee of knowing the consort’s life history before the marriage, facility to make the dowry and goods agreement and simplified pre-matrimonial negotiations. Under the evolutionary perspective, some studies have evidenced that the sexual activity and the marriage between cousins may bring adaptive solutions of survival and reproduction. One of the most important findings is that it was observed that areas with historical high rates of pathogens prevalence have presented higher rates of consanguineous marriages between cousins (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hoben, Buunk, Fincher, Thornhill, &amp; Schaller, 2010</xref>). In other more recent study, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Hoben, Buunk and Fischer, 2016</xref>) have demonstrated that the variance in the practice of consanguineous marriage between cousins may reflect functional answers to local ecological and environmental pressures. The results have indicated that the geographic isolation and the high prevalence of pathogens are independent factors and predictor of the possibility of marriages between first degree cousins. It seems that marrying a cousin may potentially increase the probability that the genes necessary to fight against the local pathogens are expressed in the following offspring, even if the involved elements are not free from the risk of endogamy. This way, the marriage between cousins will be a behavior that tends to be exhibited in geographically isolated area and with great prevalence of pathogens, what constitutes an adaptive solution for the problem of partners solution, depending on the environment in which the population lives. Probably, this strategy is not beneficial for the incestuous endogamy between parents and children and between siblings due to the greater risks of endogamy.</p>
				<p>It is possible to make another note that, although lacks robust evidence, may help explain the problem. Is it reasonable to think that these marriages between cousins may be the most adaptive solution under conditions where there is lack of partners diversity due to the geographic isolation? It seems so. Under an evolutionary perspective, it may be better to relate with a cousin and take endogamy risks than not to marry anyone and, after all, not to reproduce (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Hoben, Buunk, &amp; Fischer, 2016</xref>).</p>
				<p>The findings discussed until then reinforce the integrative proposal regarding the old dichotomies and conflicts in history of psychology, anthropology and biology, such as the nature-culture, learned-innate or biological-social debate. The incest taboo is an example that helps overcome these conflicts: in the human species, nature and culture are not separated. Sexuality and sexual behavior of humans are evidently influenced by a complex combination of biological, evolutionary, psychological and sociocultural factors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Shor, 2015</xref>). The dissolution of those dichotomies goes towards the authors who identify themselves with the developmental systems theory (DST), which has gained considerable strength within the evolutionary psychology (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Oyama, Gray, &amp; Griffiths, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Ingold, 2001</xref>). The DST sees the ontogeny as contingent cycles of interaction between a varied set of resources of development, such as DNA, cellular structure, brain functioning, and social and ecological factors.</p>
				<p>Applying the multidimensional nature of the theme in question to the DST’s main points, one can highlight (1) the joint determination for multiple causes (the incest avoidance and prohibition are influenced by biological, psychological and social factors); (2) the cause significance of incest avoidance and prohibition as contingent to the system; (3) the inheritance extended (the factors related to the incest avoidance, inherited by the human being, interact with the environment) and (4) to evolve as construction, that is, the evolution is not a question of organisms or populations being molded only by their environments, but of organism-environment systems changing over the course of time (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Lewontin, 2001</xref>).</p>
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				<title>Neurobiological correlates of morality and incest</title>
				<p>In the last few decades, the development and sophistication of the neuroimaging techniques have allowed the performance of some studies within the neurosciences field regarding moral questions of human sexuality, what includes the incestuous relationships. There are indications in literature that emotions related to social experiences are more lateraled by the left hemisphere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Ross, Homan, &amp; Buck, 1994</xref>). One has identified neural networks associated to the processing of moral stimulus, such as medial prefrontal cortex, temporoparietal junction, posterior cingulate cortex, and anterior temporal lobe (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Greene, Nystrom, Engell, Darley, &amp; Cohen, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Moll, Zahn, Oliveira-Sousa, Krueger, &amp; Grafman, 2005</xref>).</p>
				<p>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Cope et al., 2010</xref>) have evaluated how far the neural circuits underlying the immoral judgments show hemispheric lateralization. Through this analysis of studies that employ different paradigms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Harenski, Antonenko, Shane, &amp; Kiehl, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Schaich Borg, Lieberman, &amp; Kiehl, 2008</xref>), the authors have verified that the processing of immoral stimulus, including the incestuous ones, is a process more lateraled by the left hemisphere than by the right one. The regions of gathering, common to the findings, include the left prefrontal medial cortex, the left temporoparietal junction and the left posterior cingulate cortex.</p>
				<p>In other research lines, it is known that there is greater disposition of pro social behavior to faces that carry similarities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Volk &amp; Quinsey, 2007</xref>). The people may unconsciously make comparisons of facial traces, expressions and aspect through cognitive representations of their own and their families’ faces. Findings evidence a neurocognitive mechanism of facial recognition that helps in the discrimination of the kinship with correlates of right frontoparietal cerebral activation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Platek et al., 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Uddin, Kaplan, Molnar-Szakacs, Zaidel, &amp; Iacoboni, 2005</xref>). Faces that are similar to the individual’s face activate similarly neural substrates activated by the relatives’ faces. The facial resemblance is considered, thus, a track for the genetic kinship. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Platek &amp; Kemp, 2009</xref>) have compared relatives’ faces with friends’ faces and found a greater activation of the anterior cingulate and cuneus region. Other parietal and medial frontal regions have been gathered in the categorizations of similarities and differences between relatives’ faces and faces of other relations. The authors have concluded that cerebral areas such as visual, frontal and medial substrates are involved in the coordination of multiple systems implicated in the discrimination of relatives. Areas of the medial posterior region may be involved in the facial categorization (family or friend, for instance) when the faces are similar or express some level of familiarity.</p>
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				<title>Ethical and legal considerations</title>
				<p>In addition to the psychobiological and psychosocial factors previously discussed, incest raises ethical and legal questions when practiced in such a way as it harms or threatens people’s integrity, especially when there are abusive forms of coercion and without consent. The incest between an adult and a person below the age of consent is considered a form of sexual child abuse, what is identified as one of the most extreme forms of this kind of abuse and that generally results in serious and lasting psychological traumas (especially if it is a case of incest between parents and children). The risk of incest between stepfather and stepdaughter is 15 times greater than between biological father and daughter (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Sariola &amp; Uutela, 1996</xref>). Daughters that are victims of incest with the father present problems regarding sexual esteem, depressive symptomatology and psychological suffering. The start age of this kind of incest is premature, with estimates from 5 to 8 eight years old for the daughter. More than 80% victims feel distant from both parents or only from the male progenitor, indicating affection damage (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Stroebel et al., 2012</xref>). In a Brazilian study, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Flores, Mattos and Salzano, 1998</xref>) have shown that 74% incest cases involved violence in the familiar environment and that complex factors of the familiar context (extreme poverty and difficulties regarding social interactions) have also molded these cases.</p>
				<p>Although father-daughter incest has been considered for many years the most common type of incest, more recently it has been suggested that incest between siblings, especially of older siblings having sexual intercourse with younger ones, is the most common form of incest. More importantly, it has greater negative implications, because there is the choice of the older siblings for the younger ones, abuse of the victims for a long period, use of more frequent and severe violence than when it is used by adults, greater number of sexual acts with penetration when compared to abuses committed by parents or stepparents (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Cyr, Wright, McDuff, &amp; Perron, 2002</xref>). (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Bevc, 1988</xref>) has verified that the interviewees that have had sexual experiences with siblings tend to come from lower socioeconomic class; they also change residence more frequently, have less friends, and experience greater familiar conflicts than the interviewees that have not had sexual experiences with the siblings.</p>
				<p>Regarding the legal consent between adults, jurisprudence and laws on the permissive sexual intercourse between close relatives vary among the countries, and depend on especially the nature of the familiar relationship of the parties involved, as well as the age. To their legal-institutional prohibition, close relatives cannot register unions at notary’s offices nor at churches (at this due to the incestuous practice conception sin), including being subject to judgment and punishment to the incestuous practice (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Bittles, 2012</xref>). It is notable that, different from most countries, such as the United States, in Brazil incest is not legally prohibited (it is not set forth in Penal Code), that is, it is not crime if the elements involved are at the age of majority. However, it suffers the cultural regulation that prohibits it symbolically: the Brazilian society censures it; the Judeo-Christian religions reinforce such an aversion.</p>
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				<title>Final considerations</title>
				<p>According to what has been discussed until now, the recent works on evolutionary psychology, ethology, neurosciences fields and anthropology branches confront the traditional positioning that the incest prohibition is a strictly sociocultural phenomenon and it is not influenced by psychobiological factors present in the human behavior evolution. The evidence indicates, on the contrary, the existence of psychobiological mechanisms that have evolved because inhibit the sexual activity between relatives (endogenous mechanisms for endogamy inhibition) and that form the basis for institutionalization of incest prohibition and for its social and cultural regulation (exogenous mechanism). The Westermarck effect presents itself as an important theoretical window that congregates theses dimensions and helps explain the incest avoidance-prohibition binomial.</p>
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