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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">pusp</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Psicologia USP</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Psicol. USP</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0103-6564</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">1678-5177</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Instituto de Psicologia da Universidade de São Paulo</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/0103-656420160154</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigos originais</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Interação e linguagem dirigida a crianças de quinze meses</article-title>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="fr">
					<trans-title>Interaction et langage adressé aux enfants de quinze mois</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="es">
					<trans-title>Interacción y lenguaje dirigido a niños de 15 meses</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Fuertes</surname>
						<given-names>Marina</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Castro</surname>
						<given-names>Sofia</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Alves</surname>
						<given-names>Maria João</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Faria</surname>
						<given-names>Anabela</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>b</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Osório</surname>
						<given-names>Tiago</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Sousa</surname>
						<given-names>Otília</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>a</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Escola Superior de Educação, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Campus de Benfica do Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa. Lisboa, Portugal</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola Superior de Educação</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Lisboa</city>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="PT">Portugal</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>b</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Santo Espírito da Ilha Terceira. Ponta Delgada, Portugal</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Santo Espírito da Ilha Terceira</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Ponta Delgada</city>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="PT">Portugal</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>*</label>Endereço para correspondência: <email>marinaf@eselx.ipl.pt</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
				<season>Sep-Dec</season>
				<year>2017</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>28</volume>
			<issue>3</issue>
			<fpage>346</fpage>
			<lpage>357</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>28</day>
					<month>10</month>
					<year>2016</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>15</day>
					<month>03</month>
					<year>2017</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>28</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2017</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="pt">
					<license-p>Este é um artigo publicado em acesso aberto sob uma licença Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>Neste estudo são comparadas a interação e a linguagem dirigida aos filhos(as) pelos pais e mães, para analisar as diferenças e semelhanças entre as díades. Para o efeito, foram videogravadas durante uma situação de brincadeira livre 80 díades - 40 crianças (25 meninas e 15 meninos) de 15 meses em interação com os respetivos pai e mãe. Os resultados revelam que não há diferenças significativas na forma de os pais e as mães interagirem com seus filhos e filhas. Contudo, observam-se diferenças na linguagem dirigida às crianças por pais e mães, em particular em comportamentos de nomeação e avaliação positiva. Para além das diferenças são de sublinhar correlação positiva quer na interação, quer na comunicação de pais que coabitam.</p>
			</abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="fr">
				<title>Résumé</title>
				<p>Cet étude compare l‘interaction et la communication de père-enfant et de mère-enfant pour analyser les différences et les similitudes entre les dyades. Dans ce but, 80 dyades ont été filmées dans une situation de jeu libre - 40 enfants âgés de quinze mois en interaction à la fois avec son père et sa mère (25 garçons et 15 filles). Les résultats révèlent qu’il n’y a pas de différences significatives dans l’interaction des parents avec leurs enfants. Cependant, en ce qui concerne la communication, des différences ont été observées dans le langage adressé aux enfants par les parents, en particulier, dans les énoncés ciblant des noms et d‘évaluation positive. Au-delà des différences, nous soulignons la corrélation positive trouvée soit dans l‘interaction soit dans la communication entre des parents qui cohabitent.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<p>En este estudio se comparan la interacción y la comunicación entre padre-hijo(a) y madre-hijo(a) con el objetivo de analizar las diferencias y similitudes entre las díadas. Para esto, se grabaron en vídeo durante una situación de juego libre 80 díadas con 40 niños de 15 meses en interacción con sus respectivos padre y madre. Los resultados revelan que no hay diferencias significativas en la manera en que los padres y las madres interactúan con sus hijos e hijas. Sin embargo, se observan diferencias en el lenguaje que los padres dirigen a los niños, en particular en comportamientos de nombrar y valoración positiva. Más que las diferencias, es notable la correlación positiva, ya sea en la interacción, ya sea en la comunicación de padres que cohabitan.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
				<kwd>interação</kwd>
				<kwd>fala dirigida às crianças</kwd>
				<kwd>gênero</kwd>
				<kwd>parentalidade</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="fr">
				<title>Mots-clé:</title>
				<kwd>interaction</kwd>
				<kwd>langage adressé aux enfants</kwd>
				<kwd>genre</kwd>
				<kwd>parentalité</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>interacción</kwd>
				<kwd>habla dirigida a los niños</kwd>
				<kwd>género</kwd>
				<kwd>parentalidad</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="0"/>
				<table-count count="20"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="63"/>
				<page-count count="12"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introdução</title>
			<p>A qualidade da interação pais-filhos tem papel crucial no desenvolvimento infantil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bijouu &amp; Baer, 1965</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Lopez, 1991</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Schore, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Spitz, 1965</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Stams, Juffer, &amp; Ijzendoorn, 2002</xref>), investigações na área indicam que mães são mais dedicadas ao cuidar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Geiger, 1996</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hewlett, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Lamb, 1997</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Parke &amp; Buriel, 1998</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Roopnarine, Fouts, Lamb, &amp; Lewis-Elligan, 2005</xref>) e pais mais entregues ao sustentar e ao brincar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Clarke-Stewart, 1978</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Crawley &amp; Sherrod, 1984</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Feldman, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Rohner &amp; Veneziano, 2001</xref>). Um estudo longitudinal sobre a influência da prestação parental no desenvolvimento dos filhos aponta que a qualidade da interação com a mãe contribui para o desenvolvimento linguístico, e com o pai para o desenvolvimento motor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Parfitt, Pike, &amp; Ayers, 2014</xref>). Outro estudo indica que os pais tendem à linguagem mais instrutiva e intrusiva, e as mães à linguagem mais permissiva e solidária (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Leaper, Anderson, &amp; Sanders, 1998</xref>).</p>
			<p>Na comunicação verbal, mães surgem como mais comunicativas, envolvendo afetivamente a criança, e pais como mais desafiadores, estabelecendo pontes com os contextos discursivos mais alargados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Tomasello, Conti-Ramsden, &amp; Ewert, 1990</xref>). Nas últimas décadas, verificaram-se mudanças consideráveis na organização e funcionamento das famílias. Entre outras, salienta-se o número de mães que trabalha fora de casa a tempo inteiro e o aumento do número de crianças que vive só com um dos pais. Importa, pois, estudar o papel dos pais na vida das crianças.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Qualidade da interação entre pais e filhos</title>
			<p>Durante os primeiros meses de vida, tanto a mãe como a criança envolvem-se numa multiplicidade de transações recíprocas, criando modos de interação típicos de um processo ao longo do qual cada um modela o comportamento do outro, um modo diádico de mútua influência (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Sameroff &amp; Chandler, 1975</xref>). A qualidade da interação entre pais e filhos tem sido associada ao desenvolvimento da criança (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Lopez, 1991</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Schore, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Stams, Juffer, &amp; Ijzendoorn, 2002</xref>), à sua adaptação aos contextos pré-escolares, à melhor autorregulação em condições de estresse (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Kotelchuck, 1976</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Lamb, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Parke &amp; Swain, 1975</xref>) e à socialização com os pares. Esses resultados estão na base da pesquisa sobre comportamentos maternos e paternos que estimulam o desenvolvimento da criança e geram condições para sua formação pessoal e socioemocional. Ora, a investigação tem indicado como fatores importantes o reforço positivo centrado nas competências, as respostas afetivas sensíveis (adequadas às necessidades da criança, prontas e calorosas) e o comportamento recíproco como elementos estruturantes da resposta parental potenciadora do bem-estar e desenvolvimento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Beeghly, Fuertes, Liu, Delonis, &amp; Tronick, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fuertes, Lopes-dos-Santos, Beeghly, &amp; Tronick, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Stams, 2002</xref>). As condutas dos pais podem ser fator de resiliência para crianças em risco de atraso de desenvolvimento, podem proporcionar oportunidades de aprendizagem e base afetiva segura para se envolverem positivamente com outros adultos e crianças, também promotores de aprendizagem e afetos.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>A comunicação verbal entre pais e filhos</title>
				<p>Estudos indicam que a interação e a linguagem maternas afetam o desenvolvimento global e linguístico das crianças (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Bruner, 1981</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Snow, 1989</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Snow, Burns, &amp; Griffin, 1998</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Tamis-LeMonda, Bornstein, &amp; Baumwell, 2001</xref>). Se o papel das mães tem sido muito estudado, o papel dos pais no desenvolvimento dos filhos tem sido menos investigado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abkarian, Dworkin, &amp; Abkarian, 2003</xref>). Ora, a família, fator fundamental no desenvolvimento cognitivo, social e emocional das crianças (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Berger, 2001</xref>), tem mudado muito nos últimos trinta anos e continua a mudar, nomeadamente nos papéis de cada cônjuge (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Coleman, Garfield, &amp; Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Lamb, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Prado &amp; Vieira, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Torres, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Torres, Marques, &amp; Maciel, 2011</xref>). Tornam-se, por isso, prementes os estudos que focalizem sua investigação na prestação paterna e no impacto que poderá ter no desenvolvimento infantil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abkarian et al., 2003</xref>). Como e quando o pai se relaciona com a criança? Qual o impacto da sua presença na vida dos filhos e em seu desenvolvimento?</p>
				<p>Se é verdade que o ser humano possui capacidades inatas que lhe permitem aprender, sendo a aprendizagem de línguas caso particular da aprendizagem cultural (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Tomasello, Carpenter, Call, Behne, &amp; Moll, 2005</xref>), ninguém coloca em causa, hoje em dia, a importância da interação no processo de desenvolvimento do idioma. De facto, o mundo das crianças é povoado por pessoas que fazem coisas para, pelas e com elas. Neste ambiente rico em interações, os indivíduos aprendem convenções da comunicação e a falar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Tomasello, 2003</xref>). Mas, muito antes de começar a falar, as crianças comunicam, sendo capazes de indicar suas intenções mesmo sem utilizar palavras. Na realidade, a comunicação não verbal emerge muito mais precocemente do que a fala, sendo o gesto ferramenta fundamental na construção da significação (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Bates, Bretherton, &amp; Snyder, 1991</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Iverson &amp; Goldin-Meadow, 2004</xref>).</p>
				<p>No período em que o indivíduo ainda não tem palavras, os pais e/ou os seus cuidadores fornecem-lhe os vocábulos que ainda não possui. Os adultos interpretam comportamentos, expressões, movimentos, gestos, vocalizações e adequam sua contribuição, modificando a fala: entoação muito marcada, mesmo exagerada, seleção quer de itens lexicais, quer de estruturas sintáticas e também na restrição dos tópicos conversacionais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Cameron-Faulkner, Lieven, &amp; Tomasello, 2003</xref>; Falco, Venutti, Esposito, &amp; Bornstein, 2011). No fundo, envolvem a criança em linguagem, transformando seus comportamentos em semiose e mediando a interação através dos signos. Na verdade, segundo <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Oliveira e Guimarães (2016</xref>), a própria significação é contexto de interação. Quando a criança começa a ter palavras, os pai imitam-na, promovendo desse modo o entendimento e motivando-a a falar: deixam espaços, fazem perguntas e provocam a imitação. Perante produções agramaticais por parte do filho, reformulam, expandem e pedem clarificações.</p>
				<p>As respostas dos progenitores, adequadas e contingentes, são comportamentos promotores de ganhos no desenvolvimento da linguagem dos filhos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Landry, Smith, &amp; Swank, 2006</xref>). Sabe-se que para além da interação, o modo como os pais interagem - seu estilo comunicativo - é importante no desenvolvimento da criança: por exemplo, as perguntas das mães são apontadas como importante fator de desenvolvimento do filho (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hoff, 2006</xref>). A investigação sobre a fala dirigida à criança tem mostrado que a mãe, quando inclui muitas proibições e ordens, não favorece seu desenvolvimento comunicativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Hart &amp; Risley, 1995</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Hoff-Ginsberg, 1986</xref>). Já um discurso em que a mãe designa ou explica o mundo à volta da criança apresenta-se como <italic>input</italic> mais rico, com mais nomes e adjetivos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Tamis-LeMonda, Song, Smith, Kahana-Kalman, &amp; Yoshikawa, 2012</xref>). Assim, a nomeação de objetos e a atribuição de caraterísticas aos mesmos, respeitando o foco de atenção da criança, favorece a aprendizagem de vocabulário num contexto significativo e integrado.</p>
				<p>A conversa dos pais com os filhos promove contexto favorável para a aprendizagem da língua e da comunicação. Para <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Veneziano (2014</xref>), a conversa é um meio privilegiado de aprendizagem para a criança por possuir caraterísticas que possibilitam a coconstrução de significação de forma contextualizada pelos interlocutores. No vai-e-vem de enunciados entre adulto e criança a forma é alterada, mas a significação mantém-se quase invariante. Esta caraterística é apontada como muito importante para a aquisição da língua. Mas a comparação da comunicação materna e paterna ainda está pouco estudada: quem faz mais perguntas, quem dá mais ordens, com que objetivos.</p>
				<p>Em revisão bibliográfica, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Tamis-LeMonda, Baumweel e Cristofaro (2012</xref>) concluem que pais e mães são similares na adaptação dos enunciados à idade dos filhos, na referência a objetos e eventos, na produção de atos diretivos mais explícitos do que implícitos. Diferem, no entanto, na qualidade e quantidade de fala. Enquanto mães usam mais enunciados declarativos, falam mais frequentemente com os filhos em turnos conversacionais mais longos; os pais usam mais enunciados diretivos, mais pedidos de clarificação e questões sobre eventos passados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2012</xref>). Resultados similares foram encontrados num estudo sobre o português, as mães recorrem mais à linguagem verbal do que os pais, por exemplo, tomam mais vezes a iniciativa da fala e falam mais tempo (fala sincopada e arrastada), bem como usam com maior frequência sequências verbais de natureza expansiva e fazem mais elogios diretos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Alves, Fuertes, &amp; Sousa, 2015</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Tamis-LeMonda et al. (2012</xref>) observaram, também, que mães repetem mais o que dizem as crianças e usam mais perguntas fechadas, enquanto os pais usam mais enunciados afirmativos para dirigir a ação e pedir aos filhos para repetirem seus enunciados. Num estudo empírico com crianças de 2 e 3 anos provenientes de contextos desfavorecidos, a qualidade, a quantidade e a diversidade da fala materna associaram-se a maiores ganhos na aquisição da linguagem e no desenvolvimento infantil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Song, Spier, &amp; Tamis-LeMonda, 2013</xref>). Do mesmo modo, o nível de escolaridade dos pais surge em vários estudos como uma variável preditora do desenvolvimento linguístico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Pan, Rowe, Spier, &amp; Tamis-LeMonda, 2004</xref>).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Estudo empírico</title>
				<p>Este estudo pretende contribuir para o conhecimento do modo como os pais portugueses interagem e comunicam com os seus filhos. Com esta intenção foram observados pais e mães, separadamente, em situação de jogo livre com os seus filhos de 15 meses. Fizeram parte da amostra 80 díades (40 mães-filho(a), 40 pais-filho(a)) com bebés sem condições assinaláveis de risco (25 meninos e 15 meninas) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Faria, 2011</xref>). Eram objetivos do estudo: analisar a qualidade da interação entre pais e filhos; comparar os comportamentos interativos das mães com os filhos e dos pais com os filhos; e cotejar a linguagem dirigida aos filhos e às filhas pelos progenitores. De acordo com os objetivos, foram colocadas três hipóteses de investigação: existem diferenças de gênero no comportamento interativo de pais e de mães com seus filhos; existem diferenças de gênero nos estilos de comunicação de pais e de mães com os seus filhos; o gênero dos filhos condiciona quer a interação, quer a comunicação dos pais.</p>
				<p><italic>Sujeitos:</italic> 80 díades - 40 mãe-filho(a) e 40 pai-filho(a) - filmadas em situação de jogo livre durante três minutos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Faria, 2011</xref>). As crianças tinham 15 meses (25 meninos e 15 meninas) e coabitavam com as suas mães e pais.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Tabela 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Média e desvios padrão dos dados demográficos dos sujeitos</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="center"> </td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic></td>
									<td align="center">(<italic>DP</italic>)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Idade Gestacional</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 38,82</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>DP</italic> = 1,113</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Apgar ao 1’minuto</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 8,78</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>DP</italic> = 0,832</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Apgar ao 5’minuto</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 9,75</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>DP</italic> = 0,75</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center"> </td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic></td>
									<td align="center">(<italic>DP</italic>)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Idade das mães</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 29,80</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>DP</italic> = 5,19</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Idade dos pais</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 33,90</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>DP</italic> = 6,58</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Escolaridade das mães</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 11,08</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>DP</italic> = 4,257</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Escolaridade dos pais</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 9,27</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>DP</italic> = 4,466</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Quanto às profissões, tendo em conta o sistema de classificação nacional de profissões, a amostra apresenta um estatuto de classe média ou média-baixa.</p>
				<p><italic>Procedimentos</italic>: Após explicação aos pais do procedimento de recolha de dados e recebido seu consentimento, foi-lhes pedido que brincassem espontaneamente com seu filho(a), como faziam habitualmente nos tempos de brincadeira. Ao seu dispor tinham uma caixa onde foram colocados dez brinquedos, com diferentes graus de dificuldade: uns abaixo da zona de desenvolvimento proximal (brinquedos de estimulação sensorial - auditiva, visual e tátil - como tartaruga colorida, piano, rocas ou guizos com sons), outros na zona de desenvolvimento real (brinquedos de ação-reação, brinquedos de associação simbólica como boneca ou livros de imagem) e os demais na zona de desenvolvimento potencial (jogos de encaixe e de empilhar para crianças com idades entre 18 e 24 meses). As filmagens decorreram no contexto familiar do bebé ou num gabinete clínico, em função da escolha dos progenitores. Cada criança foi filmada em interação diádica com cada um dos seus pais, independentemente, durante três minutos. Cada filmagem foi transcrita tendo em conta todas as interações (verbais e não verbais) ocorridas entre os parceiros durante esse intervalo. Para a descrição das interações recorreu-se à seguinte estruturação:</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t2">
						<label>Tabela 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Operacionalização das categorias de análise</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="center">Tempo</th>
									<th align="center">Segundo a segundo.</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Vocalizações do adulto</td>
									<td align="center">Transcrição de: linguagem articulada, palavras, interjeições, onomatopeias, manifestações vocálicas e manifestações de outros comportamentos comunicativos (como riso).</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Vocalizações da criança</td>
									<td align="center">Transcrição de: linguagem articulada, palavras, interjeições, onomatopeias, manifestações vocálicas e manifestações de outros comportamentos comunicativos (como riso).</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Comportamentos não-verbais do adulto e da criança</td>
									<td align="center">Descrição de: movimentos de mãos/braços e pernas, expressões faciais, deslocações.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Afetos verbais e não-verbais</td>
									<td align="center">Comportamentos com uma tonalidade afetiva evidente - expressão facial e/ou tonalidade de voz.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Contexto</td>
									<td align="center">Local, posicionamento relativo dos parceiros, distância entre parceiros, intercorrências (como barulho exterior).</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Consideramos interação no sentido de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Tomasello (2009</xref>), enquanto participação em atividades colaborativas, envolvendo atenção conjunta e objetos e contextos partilhados, entre parceiros responsivos. Na verdade, a ação da criança, a ação dos outros e a interação com outros importantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Nelson, 1998</xref>) são centrais no desenvolvimento.</p>
				<p>Para a análise das interações, retomamos cinco das categorias de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Alves (2013</xref>): episódios de jogo - unidades de interação coesas organizadas em torno de um tópico -, dentro de cada episódio observaram-se sequências de interações em que os sujeitos se envolvem verbalmente ou em que haja envolvimento, mas não se observa verbalização: as primeiras são sequências verbais interativas e as segundas são sequências não-verbais interativas. Em cada sequência de interação foram ainda analisados os afetos verbais e não-verbais.</p>
				<p>Partindo do trabalho de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Alves (2013</xref>), foram categorizadas:</p>
				<p>As definições dos comportamentos de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Alves (2013</xref>) tiveram por base o Infant Regulatory Scoring System (IRSS), sistema microanalítico de cotação de comportamentos infantis, segundo a segundo, criado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Tronick e Weinberg (1990</xref>). Cada comportamento foi cotado em função do funcionamento diádico e atendendo ao próprio contexto, sendo as categorias mutuamente exclusivas.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t3">
						<label>Tabela 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Categorias de comportamentos interativos</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col span="2"/>
							</colgroup>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">1 - <italic>Sequências verbais interativas</italic></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Simples</td>
									<td align="center">Comportamento de um parceiro e resposta direta por parte do outro para manter a interação.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Interrompida</td>
									<td align="center">O parceiro não dá continuidade ao comportamento do outro.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Expansivas</td>
									<td align="center">O parceiro aceita o comportamento do outro, reformulando-o ou corrigindo.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Extensivas</td>
									<td align="center">O parceiro aceita o comportamento do outro alargando-o a novas possibilidades.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">2 - <italic>Afetos verbais</italic></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Elogios</td>
									<td align="center">Manifestação de apreço pelo outro.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Reforço positivo</td>
									<td align="center">Manifestação de apoio e valorização do agir verbal e/ou não verbal do outro.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Reforço negativo</td>
									<td align="center">Manifestação de indiferença ou desaprovação do agir verbal e/ou não verbal do outro.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Reforço neutro</td>
									<td align="center">Manifestação de afeto que não pode ser incluída nas categorias anteriores.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">3 - <italic>Afetos não verbais</italic></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Expressão facial positiva</td>
									<td align="center">O parceiro está atento, disponível, sorridente e adequado à interação.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Expressão facial negativa</td>
									<td align="center">O parceiro está desatento, zangado, tenso e impassivo.</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Os vídeos foram transcritos e, posteriormente, analisados usando indicadores que providenciam informação acerca da linguagem dirigida às crianças - quantidade e diversidade - e aspetos sociopragmáticos. A quantidade de linguagem dirigida à criança foi analisada tendo em conta o número de enunciados e de palavras dos pais e das mães. A diversidade da linguagem foi medida apenas tendo em conta o número de verbos, nomes e conjunções. A proporção de enunciados categorizados como ordem, elogio etc. foi calculada como indicador sociopragmático da linguagem dirigida às crianças.</p>
				<p>Para análise da linguagem, após asssitir aos vídeos, foram criadas as seguintes categorias: afetos verbais - vocalizações positivas e vocalizações negativas -, e enunciados - interrogação, pedidos (de ação e de atenção), explicação, ordem, elogio, nomeação, comentário, avaliação negativa. Aquando da transcrição, os enunciados foram segmentados de acordo com critérios prosódicos e pragmáticos. Assim, definiu-se enunciado como qualquer sequência de palavras precedida ou seguida de pausa, mudança de turno e de contorno entoacional. As categorias, ordem, elogio, interrogação, pedido etc., resultam da análise prévia dos vídeos e da revisão bibliográfica (Rowe, 2008; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Serra, Serrat, Solé, Bel, &amp; Aparici, 2000</xref>) e tiveram em conta o formato linguístico e prosódico dos enunciados e sua finalidade. Por exemplo, a categoria interrogação é definida quer por estruturas linguísticas (O que é que? Onde…? Como…?), quer pela curva de entoação (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Mateus et al., 2003</xref>), quer pela finalidade: constituindo ato em que o enunciador pede informação ao seu coenunciador.</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results">
			<title>Resultados</title>
			<p>Previamente testamos a normalidade das variáveis contínuas e optamos por testes paramétricos. A análise dos dados foi realizada com recurso a três tipos de estatística: descritiva, para descrever as médias, desvios padrão dos indicadores selecionados; teste de comparação de médias t-student; e correlação de Pearson para estudar a associação entre variáveis. O nível de significância aceite foi de 0,5 e o número de casos em todas as análises foi de 40 (não houve perdas).</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Comportamentos interativos dos pais e das mães</title>
				<p>Era objetivo do estudo comparar o comportamento interativo de pais e mães nas dimensões: episódios de jogo, sequências verbais interativas, sequências não verbais interativas e afetos verbais e não verbais.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Diferenças e associações nos episódios comunicativos iniciados pelos pais, mães e crianças</title>
					<p>Recorrendo ao teste de médias <italic>t-student</italic>, a hipótese de estudo 1, de diferenças de gênero no comportamento interativo de pais e de mães com seus filhos, não se verificou, pois não foram encontradas diferenças significativas nas médias dos pais e mães nas dimensões estudadas (<italic>M</italic>
 <sub>episódios iniciados pela mãe</sub>=2,18; <italic>SD</italic>
 <sub>episódios iniciados pela mãe</sub>=1,81; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>episódios iniciados pelo pai</sub>=1,63; <italic>SD</italic>
 <sub>episódios iniciados pelo pai</sub>=1,35). Com efeito, a análise efetuada indica que não existem diferenças significativas nos episódios iniciados pelas mães ou pelos pais [<italic>t</italic>(39)=1,41; <italic>ns</italic>]<italic>.</italic> Embora não haja diferenças entre médias, procuramos saber se os comportamentos das mães e dos pais podiam estar correlacionados positivamente ou negativamente. De acordo com o teste de correlações de Pearson não se verificam associações significativas entre os comportamentos maternos e paternos quanto aos episódios iniciados (<italic>r</italic>=-0,130; n=40, ns).</p>
					<p>Posteriormente, quando comparamos as médias dos episódios iniciados pelas crianças com os pais ou com as mães (<italic>M</italic>
 <sub>episódios iniciados pela criança com a mãe</sub>=1,90; <italic>SD</italic>
 <sub>episódios iniciados pela criança com a mãe</sub>=1,32; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>episódios iniciados pela criança com o pai</sub>=1,50; <italic>SD</italic>
 <sub>episódios iniciados pela criança com o pai</sub>=1,24) com o teste de médias <italic>t-student</italic> também não verificamos diferenças significativas [<italic>t</italic>(39)=1,26; <italic>ns</italic>]. Igualmente, testamos a correlação entre os episódios iniciados pelas crianças com os pais ou com as mães e não encontramos associações significativas (<italic>r</italic>=0,230; n=40, ns).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diferenças e associações nas sequências verbais interativas realizadas pelos pais, mães e crianças</title>
					<p>De acordo com o teste de <italic>t-student</italic>, não verificamos diferenças significativas nas médias dos comportamentos verbais das mães e dos pais (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref>), no que respeita às sequências verbais simples [<italic>t</italic>(39)=0,62; <italic>ns</italic>], interrompidas [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-0,84; <italic>ns</italic>], expansivas [<italic>t</italic>(39)=0,18; <italic>ns</italic>] e extensivas [<italic>t</italic>(39)=1,66; ns].</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t4">
							<label>Tabela 4</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Médias e desvios padrão das sequências verbais interativas</title>
							</caption>
							<table>
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center"><italic>M materna</italic></th>
										<th align="center"><italic>(DP)</italic></th>
										<th align="center"><italic>M paterna</italic></th>
										<th align="center"><italic>(DP)</italic></th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">Sequências Verbais Simples</td>
										<td align="center">49,48</td>
										<td align="center">27,33</td>
										<td align="center">47,43</td>
										<td align="center">23,94</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">Sequências Verbais Interrompidas</td>
										<td align="center">14,38</td>
										<td align="center">8,73</td>
										<td align="center">15,58</td>
										<td align="center">9,91</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">Sequências Verbais Expansivas</td>
										<td align="center">6,35</td>
										<td align="center">5,36</td>
										<td align="center">6,15</td>
										<td align="center">5,24</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">Sequências Verbais Extensivas</td>
										<td align="center">11,50</td>
										<td align="center">10,33</td>
										<td align="center">8,55</td>
										<td align="center">7,93</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>Contudo, os comportamentos maternos e paternos estão correlacionados em termos verbais de sequências simples e interrompidas com as crianças (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 5</xref>).</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t5">
							<label>Tabela 5</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Correlações de Pearson entre os comportamentos verbais dos pais e das mães</title>
							</caption>
							<table>
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col span="4"/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center" colspan="4"><italic>Comportamento verbal materno</italic></th>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center"><italic>Sequências Simples</italic></th>
										<th align="center"><italic>Sequências Interrompidas</italic></th>
										<th align="center"><italic>Sequências Expansivas</italic></th>
										<th align="center"><italic>Sequências Extensivas</italic></th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="center" rowspan="4"><italic>Comportamento verbal paterno</italic></td>
										<td align="center"><italic>Sequências simples</italic></td>
										<td align="center">0,673<sup>***</sup></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Sequências Interrompidas</italic></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">0,533<sup>***</sup></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Sequências Expansivas</italic></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">0,152</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Sequências Extensivas</italic></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">0,096</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN1">
									<p>***p&lt;0,001, n=40</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diferenças e associações nas sequências não verbais interativas</title>
					<p>De acordo com o teste <italic>t-student</italic>, verificamos que não existem diferenças significativas nas médias nos comportamentos não-verbais das mães e dos pais ao nível de sequências não-verbais simples [<italic>t</italic>(39)=0,07; <italic>ns</italic>], interrompidas, [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-0,08; <italic>ns</italic>] e extensivas, [<italic>t</italic>(39)=0,72; <italic>ns</italic>], à exceção da categoria sequências expansivas [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-3,01; <italic>p</italic>=0,004], que podem ser consultadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 6</xref>.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t6">
							<label>Tabela 6</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Médias e desvio padrão das sequências não verbais interativas</title>
							</caption>
							<table>
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center"><italic>M materna</italic></th>
										<th align="center">(<italic>DP</italic>)</th>
										<th align="center"><italic>M paterna</italic></th>
										<th align="center">(<italic>DP</italic>)</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">Sequências Não Verbais Simples</td>
										<td align="center">7,20</td>
										<td align="center">6,06</td>
										<td align="center">7,13</td>
										<td align="center">5,40</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">Sequências Não Verbais Interrompidas</td>
										<td align="center">6,25</td>
										<td align="center">4,33</td>
										<td align="center">6,20</td>
										<td align="center">4,39</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">Sequências Não Verbais Expansivas</td>
										<td align="center">0,88</td>
										<td align="center">1,36</td>
										<td align="center">2,28</td>
										<td align="center">3,25</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">Sequências Não Verbais Extensivas</td>
										<td align="center">1,40</td>
										<td align="center">2,24</td>
										<td align="center">1,70</td>
										<td align="center">3,00</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>Contudo, estes comportamentos maternos e paternos estão correlacionados em todas as dimensões (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 7</xref>). Isto significa que quando as mães exibem mais comportamentos não-verbais com as crianças, por sua vez, também os pais exibem mais frequentemente essa conduta. Assim, crianças que recebem mais respostas não verbais das mães também as recebem dos pais.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t7">
							<label>Tabela 7</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Correlações de Pearson entre os comportamentos não verbais dos pais e das mães</title>
							</caption>
							<table>
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col span="4"/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center" colspan="4"><italic>Comportamento Não Verbal materno</italic></th>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center"><italic>Sequências simples</italic></th>
										<th align="center"><italic>Sequências interrompidas</italic></th>
										<th align="center"><italic>Sequências expansivas</italic></th>
										<th align="center"><italic>Sequências extensivas</italic></th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="center" rowspan="4"><italic>Comportamento Não Verbal paterno</italic></td>
										<td align="center"><italic>Sequências simples</italic></td>
										<td align="center">0,437<sup>***</sup></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Sequências interrompidas</italic></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">0,509<sup>***</sup></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Sequências expansivas</italic></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">0,435</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Sequências extensivas</italic></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">0,521</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN2">
									<p>***p&lt;0,001, n=40</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Comportamentos Afetivos</title>
				<sec>
					<title>Diferenças e associações nos afetos verbais dos pais e das mães</title>
					<p>Segundo o teste de <italic>t-student</italic>, mães exibem em média mais comportamentos afetivos em termos de elogios do que os pais [<italic>t</italic>(39)=2,93; <italic>p</italic>=0,022]. Contudo, não existem diferenças significativas ao nível das médias maternas e paternas no reforço positivo [<italic>t</italic>(39)=1,80; <italic>ns</italic>], no reforço negativo [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-1,04; <italic>ns</italic>] e no reforço neutro [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-1,64; <italic>ns</italic>]. Para consultar as médias e desvios padrão consultar <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 8</xref>:</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t8">
							<label>Tabela 8</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Médias e desvios padrão das respostas afetivas verbais dos pais e das mães</title>
							</caption>
							<table>
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center"><italic>M materna</italic></th>
										<th align="center">(<italic>DP</italic>)</th>
										<th align="center"><italic>M paterna</italic></th>
										<th align="center">(<italic>DP</italic>)</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">Elogio</td>
										<td align="center">0,38</td>
										<td align="center">0,77</td>
										<td align="center">0,05</td>
										<td align="center">0,31</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">Reforço Positivo</td>
										<td align="center">37,20</td>
										<td align="center">19,34</td>
										<td align="center">32,57</td>
										<td align="center">13,53</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">Reforço Negativo</td>
										<td align="center">0,72</td>
										<td align="center">1,37</td>
										<td align="center">1,12</td>
										<td align="center">2,25</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center">Reforço Neutro</td>
										<td align="center">3,47</td>
										<td align="center">3,75</td>
										<td align="center">4,700</td>
										<td align="center">4,63</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>No entanto, como se observa na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Tabela 9</xref>, é interessante assinalar que o reforço positivo das mães está correlacionado com dos pais.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t9">
							<label>Tabela 9</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Correlações de Pearson: amostras emparelhadas entre as respostas afetivas maternas e paternas</title>
							</caption>
							<table>
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col span="4"/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center" colspan="4"><italic>Materno</italic></th>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center"><italic>Elogio</italic></th>
										<th align="center"><italic>Reforço positivo</italic></th>
										<th align="center"><italic>Reforço negativo</italic></th>
										<th align="center"><italic>Reforço neutro</italic></th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Elogio</italic></td>
										<td align="center">-0,079</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Reforço positivo</italic></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">0,559<sup>***</sup></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Reforço negativo</italic></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">0,160</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Reforço neutro</italic></td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">-</td>
										<td align="center">0,381</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN3">
									<p>***p&lt;0,001</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diferenças e associações nas respostas afetivas físicas dos pais e das mães</title>
					<p>Pais e mães não se diferenciam quanto à afetividade, [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-0,23. <italic>ns</italic>, <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>respostas afetivas da mãe</sub>=0,35; <italic>SD</italic>=1,00; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>respostas afetivas do pai</sub>=0,27; <italic>SD</italic>=0,82]. Não obstante, os comportamentos afetivos das mães e dos pais estão correlacionados (<italic>r</italic>=0,350; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,005), bem como os comportamentos dos filhos com os pais (<italic>r</italic>=0,397; <italic>n</italic>=40; p&lt;0,001).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Afetos não verbais - diferenças e associações nas expressões faciais dos pais e das mães</title>
					<p>Os pais e as mães não se diferenciam quanto às expressões faciais positivas [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-1,34; <italic>ns</italic>; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>respostas afetivas da mãe</sub>=11,34; <italic>SD</italic>=6,78; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>respostas afetivas do pai</sub>=14,25; <italic>SD</italic>=4,53] e negativas [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-0,76; <italic>ns</italic>; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>respostas afetivas da mãe</sub>=1,75; <italic>SD</italic>=1,00; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>respostas afetivas do pai</sub>=2,31; <italic>SD</italic>=2,60]. Porém, expressões faciais positivas das mães e dos pais apresentam elevada correlação (<italic>r</italic>=0,730, <italic>n</italic>=40, <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,001) bem como as expressões negativas de ambos os progenitores (<italic>r</italic>=0,786, <italic>n</italic>=40, p&lt;0,001).</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Diferenças e associações na comunicação dos pais e das mães</title>
					<p>O segundo objetivo visava estudar e comparar a linguagem dirigida aos filhos e filhas por pais e mães. Colocamos como hipótese 2 que existem diferenças de gênero nos estilos de comunicação dos pais e das mães com seus filhos e filhas. Foram analisados os enunciados dos progenitores tendo por suporte as categorias: interrogações, pedido de atenção, pedido de ação, explicação, ordem, elogio, nomeação, comentário, avaliação negativa.</p>
					<p>Observamos que as mães fizeram mais elogio/estímulo [<italic>t</italic>(40)=2,878; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,005; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>elogio da mãe</sub>=2,58, <italic>SD</italic>=2,56; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>elogio do pai</sub>=1,28, <italic>SD</italic>=1,69] e nomeações [<italic>t</italic>(40)=2,033; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,05; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>nomeação da mãe</sub>=3,68, <italic>SD</italic>=4,53; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>nomeação do pai</sub>=2,23, <italic>SD</italic>=2,39] do que os pais.</p>
					<p>É de salientar que os comportamentos dos pais e das mães se encontram correlacionados nas categorias perguntas, pedidos de atenção, comentários e ordens (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">Tabela 10</xref>), por exemplo, as crianças com pais que elaboram mais questões tem mães que também perguntam mais, o mesmo sucede para pedidos de atenção, comentários e ordens.</p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t10">
							<label>Tabela 10</label>
							<caption>
								<title>Correlações de Pearson com sujeitos emparelhados relativamente aos indicadores da linguagem dirigida às crianças</title>
							</caption>
							<table>
								<colgroup>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="center"> </th>
										<th align="center">Perg. Mãe</th>
										<th align="center">Perg. Pai</th>
										<th align="center">Ped. Atç. Mãe</th>
										<th align="center">Ped. Atç. Pai</th>
										<th align="center">Ped. Atç. Mãe</th>
										<th align="center">Ped. Atç. Pai</th>
										<th align="center">Exp.. Mãe</th>
										<th align="center">Exp. Pai</th>
										<th align="center">Ord. Mãe</th>
										<th align="center">Ord. Pai</th>
										<th align="center">Elg. Mãe</th>
										<th align="center">Elog Pai</th>
										<th align="center">Com. Mãe</th>
										<th align="center">Com. Pai</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Perguntas-Mãe</italic></td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center">0,543<sup>***</sup></td>
										<td align="center">-0,012</td>
										<td align="center">0,067</td>
										<td align="center">0,227</td>
										<td align="center">-0,070</td>
										<td align="center">0,330<sup>*</sup></td>
										<td align="center">-0,005</td>
										<td align="center">0,034</td>
										<td align="center">0,316<sup>*</sup></td>
										<td align="center">0,053</td>
										<td align="center">-0,161</td>
										<td align="center">0,441<sup>**</sup></td>
										<td align="center">0,047</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Perguntas-Pai</italic></td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center">0,068</td>
										<td align="center">-0,183</td>
										<td align="center">0,060</td>
										<td align="center">-0,022</td>
										<td align="center">0,068</td>
										<td align="center">0,125</td>
										<td align="center">0,101</td>
										<td align="center">0,365<sup>*</sup></td>
										<td align="center">-0,285</td>
										<td align="center">-0,007</td>
										<td align="center">0,481<sup>**</sup></td>
										<td align="center">0,244</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Pedidos_atenção-Mãe</italic></td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center">0,369<sup>*</sup></td>
										<td align="center">0,345<sup>*</sup></td>
										<td align="center">0,276</td>
										<td align="center">-0,061</td>
										<td align="center">0,200</td>
										<td align="center">0,063</td>
										<td align="center">-0,035</td>
										<td align="center">0,053</td>
										<td align="center">-0,077</td>
										<td align="center">0,242</td>
										<td align="center">0,245</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Pedidos_atenção-Pai</italic></td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center">0,170</td>
										<td align="center">0,108</td>
										<td align="center">0,207</td>
										<td align="center">0,320<sup>*</sup></td>
										<td align="center">0,133</td>
										<td align="center">0,064</td>
										<td align="center">0,091</td>
										<td align="center">-0,106</td>
										<td align="center">-0,166</td>
										<td align="center">0,075</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Pedidos_ação-Mãe</italic></td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center">0,099</td>
										<td align="center">0,217</td>
										<td align="center">0,285</td>
										<td align="center">0,133</td>
										<td align="center">0,111</td>
										<td align="center">0,147</td>
										<td align="center">0,009</td>
										<td align="center">0,264</td>
										<td align="center">0,237</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Pedidos_ação-Pai</italic></td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center">-0,079</td>
										<td align="center">0,265</td>
										<td align="center">0,185</td>
										<td align="center">-0,106</td>
										<td align="center">-0,111</td>
										<td align="center">-0,078</td>
										<td align="center">-0,073</td>
										<td align="center">0,165</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Explicação-Mãe</italic></td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center">0,213</td>
										<td align="center">0,196</td>
										<td align="center">-0,104</td>
										<td align="center">0,110</td>
										<td align="center">0,115</td>
										<td align="center">0,199</td>
										<td align="center">-0,143</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td align="center"><italic>Explicação-Pai</italic></td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center"> </td>
										<td align="center">-0,068</td>
										<td align="center">-0,098</td>
										<td align="center">-0,265</td>
										<td align="center">0,334</td>
										<td align="center">-0,057</td>
										<td align="center">-0,101</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN4">
									<p>***p&lt;0,001; **p&lt;0,01; *p&lt;0,05</p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Relação entre as variáveis dependentes e as variáveis demográficas</title>
					<p>Na relação entre variáveis dependentes e demográficas, podemos observar que o gênero das crianças afeta a interação e comunicação entre pais e filhos. De acordo com o teste de <italic>t-student,</italic> meninos exibem significativamente mais evitamento à mãe [<italic>t</italic>(38)=-2,459; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,01] do que meninas, que, por sua vez, exibem mais vocalizações negativas [<italic>t</italic>(38)=2,161; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,05] e maior expressão facial negativa [<italic>t</italic>(38)=2,158; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,05] dirigidas aos pais do que às mães.</p>
					<p>Outra variável importante parece ser o grau de instrução materno. Mães com mais anos de escolaridade apresentam índices superiores de evitamento com os seus filhos (<italic>r</italic>=0,442; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,005), por seu lado, as crianças também apresentam mais evitamentos a mães com maior escolaridade (<italic>r</italic>=0,338; <italic>n</italic>=40; p&lt;0,05).</p>
					<p>Curiosamente, crianças com mais irmãos tendem a iniciar mais as atividades (<italic>r</italic>=-0,380; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,05) e mães (<italic>r</italic>=0,338; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,05) e pais (<italic>r</italic>=0,421; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,01) mais velhos tendem a exibir mais comportamentos não verbais.</p>
					<p>Os fatores de nascimento, particularmente a idade gestacional e a Apgar, condicionaram os resultados. Com efeito, a idade gestacional dos bebés está positivamente correlacionada com a quantidade de expressões faciais positivas das mães (<italic>r</italic>=0,349; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,05) e negativamente correlacionada com as expressões faciais negativas das mães (<italic>r</italic>=-0,338; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,05). Igualmente, a idade gestacional dos bebés está positivamente correlacionada com os comportamentos paternos de afeto positivo (<italic>r</italic>=0,444; <italic>n</italic>=40; p&lt;0,05).</p>
					<p>As crianças nascidas com índices inferiores de Apgar tendem a apresentar com maior frequência expressões faciais negativas (<italic>r</italic>=0,718; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,05) e afeto negativo (<italic>r</italic>=0,329; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,05) com a mãe.</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="results|discussion">
			<title>Discussão dos resultados</title>
			<p>Este estudo tinha como objetivo analisar e comparar os comportamentos interativos de pais e mães com bebés de 15 meses em situação de jogo livre e comparar a linguagem usada pelos progenitores. No que se refere à primeira hipótese do estudo, diferenças de gênero nos comportamentos interativos mãe-filho(a) e pai-filho(a), quando comparamos as díades no que diz respeito aos episódios de jogo, sequências verbais e sequências não-verbais não se verificam diferenças significativas. Não obstante, quando correlacionamos díade mãe-filho(a) e díade pai-filho(a), encontramos correlações significativas.</p>
			<p>Os dados indicam que na categoria sequências verbais os comportamentos maternos e paternos estão correlacionados em duas dimensões: sequências simples e sequências interrompidas. Assim, as crianças que recebem mais respostas verbais simples e interrompidas das suas mães recebem, também, mais respostas verbais simples e interrompidas dos seus pais. Este resultado deve ser objeto de reflexão porque pode ser indicador da importância do <italic>input</italic> ou do <italic>d</italic>é<italic>ficit</italic> de <italic>input</italic>, ou seja, crianças que recebem mais <italic>input</italic> da mãe também recebem mais <italic>input</italic> do pai, e crianças que recebem menos <italic>input</italic> da mãe também recebem menos <italic>input</italic> do pai. Como referido, a quantidade e qualidade da linguagem dirigida à criança é crucial no seu desenvolvimento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hoff, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Pan et al., 2004</xref>).</p>
			<p>Por outro lado, sequências simples e sequências interrompidas podem ser consideradas como comportamentos interativos menos elaborados do que sequências expansivas e/ou extensivas (que requerem mais tempo, e maior atenção por parte do adulto). Por que razão só encontramos corelação entre as duas primeiras subcategorias?</p>
			<p>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Alves (2013</xref>), num estudo exploratório com vinte díades do mesmo <italic>corpus,</italic> conclui que as mães recorrem mais à linguagem verbal na interação com os seus filhos, falam mais e durante mais tempo do que os pais. Ao alargarmos o número de díades estudadas (80), a diferença esbate-se. Este resultado foi encontrado noutras culturas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Yago, Hirose, Okamitsu, Okabayashi, Hiroi, Nakagawa, &amp; Omori, 2014</xref>). De igual modo, ao comparar os comportamentos não-verbais das mães e dos pais, não se verificam diferenças significativas, no entanto, comportamentos não-verbais maternos e paternos estão correlacionados em todas as dimensões, as crianças que recebem mais respostas não-verbais das suas mães também recebem mais respostas não-verbais dos seus pais. Assim, parece que mais do que diferenças de gênero dos pais ou dos filhos, a coabitação (pai/mãe) é uma variável a ser levada em conta. A convivência dos progenitores poderá ser modeladora de comportamentos e de estilos da interação, tanto verbal como não-verbal. Saliente-se que são os comportamentos não-verbais e os comportamentos verbais menos elaborados e extensos que surgem correlacionados.</p>
			<p>No que concerne aos afetos verbais, as mães exibem em média mais comportamentos afetivos do que os pais. Contudo, não se verificam diferenças significativas nas categorias elogio, reforço negativo e reforço neutro. Ressalte-se, porém, que o reforço positivo e o reforço neutro da mãe estão correlacionados com os mesmos tipos de reforços por parte do pai. Mães e pais reforçam positivamente o filho(a) durante a brincadeira o que certamente aumenta a probabilidade de a criança se motivar e repetir o comportamento desejável.</p>
			<p>Relativamente aos afetos não-verbais, na categoria das expressões faciais positivas e negativas, pais e mães não revelam diferenças estatisticamente significativas. Estes comportamentos, porém, estão altamente correlacionados.</p>
			<p>No que concerne à segunda hipótese, conclui-se que, quanto à linguagem dirigida à criança, não se verificam diferenças significativas na maioria das categorias em análise. No entanto, verificam-se diferenças significativas na média dos comportamentos verbais dos pais e mães relativamente aos enunciados: elogio - as mães fizeram em média mais elogios do que os pais; nomeação - as mães fizeram em média mais nomeações do que os pais (subsignificativamente os comentários e enunciados de avaliação negativa - em média as mães fizeram mais comentários). Estes resultados corroboram estudos nacionais anteriores que mostram que as mães apresentam respostas mais positivas em relação aos seus filhos do que os pais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Alves et al., 2015</xref>; ; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Faria, Santos, &amp; Fuertes, 2014</xref>). A categoria nomeação engloba enunciados em que se atribui nome a artefatos ou eventos do contexto e releva da necessidade de nomear a realidade circundante. A nomeação e a manipulação de objetos favorecem a aprendizagem do léxico e, consequentemente, o alargamento e aprofundamento do conhecimento da criança (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, Berk, &amp; Singer, 2009</xref>).</p>
			<p>No comportamento de nomeação, observa-se que os nomes são repetidos diversas vezes. Não é demais salientar a importância dada à fala dirigida às crianças e o papel que a repetição tem na aprendizagem da linguagem (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Veneziano, 2014</xref>). No <italic>corpus</italic>, podemos observar que não só as mães nomeiam muito como o fazem de modo repetitivo, retomando em contextos sintáticos diferentes a mesma palavra. Também se observa o uso de diversas estratégias para colocar a palavra em destaque: destaque na frase, destaque prosódico ou mesmo emissão silabada. Um discurso mais referencial em que se designa ou explica o mundo à volta da criança constitui <italic>input</italic> mais rico, com mais nomes e adjetivos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2012</xref>) promovendo o desenvolvimento do vocabulário. Num estudo empírico com crianças de 2 e 3 anos de contextos sociais desfavorecidos, a qualidade, a quantidade e a diversidade da fala materna são associadas a ganhos na aquisição da linguagem e no desenvolvimento infantil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Song et al., 2013</xref>). Como assinalado, no <italic>corpus</italic> em análise, ainda que as mães usem mais verbos e nomes e os pais mais conjunções (associadas a maior complexidade sintática), estas diferenças não são estatisticamente significativas.</p>
			<p>Além de diferenças significativas nas categorias elogios e nomeação, os resultados mostram que os comportamentos de pais e mães estão correlacionados nas seguintes categorias: perguntas, pedidos de atenção, comentários positivos e ordens. Em estudos sobre a fala de pais dirigida a crianças, concluiu-se que a fala dos pais seria mais desafiadora para a criança do que a das mães e, por isso, estabeleceria uma ponte (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Tomasello, Conti-Ramsden, &amp; Ewert, 1990</xref>) entre a linguagem da criança e a do meio circundante. Deste modo, pais e mães teriam papéis complementares. No nosso estudo, mais do que a complementaridade, sobressai a conformidade, já que os progenitores apresentam grande leque de comportamentos verbais correlacionados. Pais e mães, mais do que diferenças, parecem apresentar comportamentos comunicativos que se aproximam. Sendo um estudo sobre gênero, este trabalho aponta novos caminhos para a investigação sobre os estilos de comunicação e a coabitação.</p>
			<p>A terceira hipótese aventava que o gênero dos filhos condiciona quer a interação, quer a comunicação dos pais. Os resultados não apresentam diferenças significativas nos comportamentos dos pais, quer se trate de meninos ou de meninas. No entanto, os meninos apresentam maior evitamento com as mães, e as meninas expressam mais vocalizações e afetos negativos em relação aos pais. Este aspeto corrobora resultados de estudos anteriores que assinalam maior sincronia nas díades do mesmo gênero (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Manlove &amp; Vernon-Feagans, 2002</xref>). Se se verifica que os meninos exibem mais evitamento à mãe do que as meninas, e as meninas exibem mais vocalizações negativas e expressão facial negativa dirigidas ao pai, também se observa que os progenitores tendem a ter expectativas e relacionamentos diferentes com os filhos e as filhas. Num estudo com crianças mais velhas (de 3 a 5 anos) numa situação de brincadeira pais-filhos, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Barroso et al. (2017</xref>) verificam que os pais respeitam mais as meninas e ignoram mais a contribuição dos meninos. Além disso, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Faria et al. (2014</xref>) apontam maior sincronia entre díades do mesmo gênero.</p>
			<p>Os resultados mostraram diferenças socio­demográficas. Salienta-se que o evitamento dos pais e das mães com os filhos está correlacionado com a escolaridade paterna e materna. O evitamento dos filhos para com os pais também está correlacionado com a escolaridade paterna e materna. Quanto à variável idade dos pais, percebe-se que pais mais velhos tendem a exibir mais comportamentos não verbais.</p>
			<p>Por fim, atendamos às variáveis associadas aos filhos que condicionam a interação. Entre elas destacam-se a robustez, o peso gestacional, o índice de Apgar, a posição relativa entre irmãos e o número destes. O peso gestacional e o índice de Apgar influenciam a relação que os pais estabelecem com os seus filhos: bebés mais robustos e com melhor índice de Apgar parecem suscitar nos pais comportamentos mais positivos. Crianças com mais irmãos tendem a iniciar mais atividades. Será este comportamento resultante da interação com os irmãos? Famílias mais alargadas, com maior número de filhos serão um contexto em que as crianças desenvolvem um maior sentido de autonomia e de iniciativa? Numa investigação sobre crianças do pré-escolar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Silva, 2009</xref>), não foi encontrada relação entre o número de irmãos e a construção da autonomia. Este é um aspeto a merecer mais estudo.</p>
			<p>Focados na qualidade da interação e da comunicação dos pais e mães com os seus filhos e filhas, num estudo observacional, salienta-se a correlação dos comportamentos interparentais na relação com os seus filhos. Mais estudos seriam necessários para investigar o modo como a qualidade do comportamento relacional de um dos pais influencia o comportamento do outro e o modo como os pais interagem em situações triádicas, isto é, pai, mãe e filho(a).</p>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Original Articles</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Interaction and language directed at children aged 15 months</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Fuertes</surname>
						<given-names>Marina</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Castro</surname>
						<given-names>Sofia</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Alves</surname>
						<given-names>Maria João</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Faria</surname>
						<given-names>Anabela</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>b</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Osório</surname>
						<given-names>Tiago</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Sousa</surname>
						<given-names>Otília</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>a</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Escola Superior de Educação, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Campus de Benfica do Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa. Lisboa, Portugal</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>b</label>
				<institution content-type="original"> Hospital de Santo Espírito da Ilha Terceira. Ponta Delgada, Portugal</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2">
					<label>*</label>Corresponding address: marinaf@eselx.ipl.pt</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>In this study we compare maternal and paternal interaction and speech directed to their children, in order to analyze differences and similitudes between the dyads. For that purpose, 80 dyads were taped in a free play situation - forty 15 months old children (25 girls, 15 boys) interacting with their parents. Results demonstrate no significant differences regarding the way mothers and fathers interact with their sons and daughters. However, differences in mothers versus fathers’ style of communication toward their children were found, particularly naming and positive evaluation behaviors. Although differences were found, we underline positive correlation in interaction and communication of cohabiting parents.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>interaction</kwd>
				<kwd>children directed speech</kwd>
				<kwd>gender</kwd>
				<kwd>parenthood</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>The quality of parent-child interaction plays a crucial role in child development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bijouu &amp; Baer, 1965</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Lopez, 1991</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Schore, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Spitz, 1965</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Stams, Juffer, &amp; Ijzendoorn, 2002</xref>). Research indicates that mothers are more caring (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Geiger, 1996</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Hewlett, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Lamb, 1997</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Parke &amp; Buriel, 1998</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Roopnarine, Fouts, Lamb, &amp; Lewis-Elligan, 2005</xref>) and fathers more prone to provide for and play with (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Clarke-Stewart, 1978</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Crawley &amp; Sherrod, 1984</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Feldman, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Rohner &amp; Veneziano, 2001</xref>). A longitudinal study on the influence of parental care on the development of children points out that while the quality of the interaction with the mother contributes to linguistic development, the quality of the interaction with the father contributes more to motor development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Parfitt, Pike, &amp; Ayers, 2014</xref>). Another study indicates that the fathers’ language tends to be more instructive and intrusive, while the mothers’ language tends to be more permissive and supportive (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Leaper, Anderson, &amp; Sanders, 1998</xref>).</p>
				<p>In verbal communication, mothers emerge as more communicative, involving the child more emotionally, and fathers seem to be more challenging, establishing bridges with wider discursive contexts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Tomasello, Conti-Ramsden, &amp; Ewert, 1990</xref>). Over the last few decades, there have been considerable changes in the organization and functioning of families. Among other trends, the number of mothers working full-time away from home and the increasing number of children living with only one parent are highlighted. It is therefore important to study the role of parents in children’s lives.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Quality of parent-child interaction</title>
				<p>During the early months of life, both mother and child engage in a multiplicity of reciprocal transactions, creating typical modes of interaction in a process along which they modulate each other’s behavior, in a dyadic process of mutual influence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Sameroff, &amp; Chandler, 1975</xref>). The quality of parent-child interaction has been associated with child development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Lopez, 1991</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Schore, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Stams, Juffer, &amp; Ijzendoorn, 2002</xref>), their adaptation to preschool settings, improved self-regulation under stress (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Kotelchuck, 1976</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Lamb, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Parke &amp; Swain, 1975</xref>) and socialization with peers. These results are the basis of research for maternal and paternal behaviors that stimulate the development of the child and generate conditions for personal and socioemotional developement. However, research has shown that positive reinforcement of skills, sensitive affective responses (appropriate to the child’s needs, prompt and warm) and reciprocal behavior as structuring elements of the parental response that enhance well-being and development, are important factors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Beeghly, Fuertes, Liu, Delonis, &amp; Tronick, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Fuertes, Lopes-dos-Santos, Beeghly, &amp; Tronick, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Stams, 2002</xref>). These parental behaviors can be a resilient factor for children at risk of delayed developmental, and can provide learning opportunities as well as a secure affective basis for them to engage positively with other adults and children, who are also promoters of learning and effects.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Verbal communication between parents and children</title>
					<p>Studies indicate that maternal interaction and language affect children’s overall and linguistic development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Bruner, 1981</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Snow, 1989</xref>; Snow, Burns, &amp; Griffin, 1998; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Tamis-LeMonda, Bornstein, &amp; Baumwell, 2001</xref>). While the role of mothers has been much studied, the role of fathers in child development has been investigated to a lesser extent (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abkarian, Dworkin, &amp; Abkarian, 2003</xref>). The family, a key factor in children’s cognitive, social and emotional development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Berger, 2001</xref>), has changed a lot over the last thirty years and continues to change, particularly in regards to the roles of each spouse (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Coleman, Garfield, &amp; Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Lamb, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Prado &amp; Vieira, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Torres, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Torres, Marques, &amp; Maciel, 2011</xref>). Therefore, studies that focus on fathers’ care and the impact it may have on child development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Abkarian et al., 2003</xref>) are important. How and when does the father relate to the child? What impact does his presence have on his children’s lives and development?</p>
					<p>If it is true that human beings have innate abilities that allow them to learn, language learning being a particular case of cultural learning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Tomasello, Carpenter, Call, Behne, &amp; Moll, 2005</xref>), then today no one calls the importance of interaction in the process of language acquisition into question. In fact, a child’s world is populated by people who do things for and with children. In this interaction-rich environment, children learn the conventions of communication and learn to talk (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Tomasello, 2003</xref>). But long before they start talking, children can communicate, they are able to signal their intentions even without using words. In fact, non-verbal communication emerges much earlier than speech, and gesture is a fundamental tool in the construction of meaning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Bates, Bretherton, &amp; Snyder, 1991</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Iverson &amp; Goldin-Meadow, 2004</xref>).</p>
					<p>During the period in which children are still not able to speak, parents and/or caregivers provide them with the words they do not yet have. Parents interpret behaviors, expressions, movements, gestures, and vocalizations and adjust their contribution, modifying speech: marked, even exaggerated, intonation, selection of lexical items or syntactic structures, and restriction of conversational topics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Cameron-Faulkner, Lieven, &amp; Tomasello, 2003</xref>; Falco, Venutti, Esposito, &amp; Bornstein, 2011). In fact, they engage the child in language, transforming their behavior into semiosis, mediating the interaction through signs. In fact, according to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Oliveira and Guimarães (2016</xref>), meaning itself is the context of interaction. When the child begins to command words, they imitate him/her, thusly promoting understanding and motivating the child to speak: they leave blanks, ask questions and elicit imitation. When faced with a child’s ungrammatical productions, parents reformulate, expand and ask for clarification.</p>
					<p>Adequate and contingent parental responses are behaviors that promote advances in the development of children’s language (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Landry, Smith, &amp; Swank, 2006</xref>). It is well known that in addition to interaction, the way that parents interact - their communicative style - is important for the development of the child: for example, mothers’ questions are pointed out as an important factor for child development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hoff, 2006</xref>). Research on child-directed speech has shown that maternal speech that includes many prohibitions and orders does not favor the child’s communicative development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Hart &amp; Risley, 1995</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Hoff-Ginsberg, 1986</xref>). In contrast, speech in which the mother designates or explains the world around the child stands as a richer input<italic>,</italic> with more names and adjectives (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Tamis-LeMonda, Song, Smith, Kahana-Kalman, &amp; Yoshikawa, 2012</xref>). Thus, naming and ascribing characteristics to objects, while respecting the child’s focus of attention, favors the learning of vocabulary in a meaningful and integrated context.</p>
					<p>Conversation between parents and their children promotes a favorable context for language learning and communication. For <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Veneziano (2014</xref>), conversation is a privileged means of learning for the child because it has characteristics that enable the co-construction of meaning, which is achieved by the interlocutors in a contextualized way. In the back and forth of statements between adult and child, the form is altered, but the meaning remains almost invariant. This feature is pointed out as very important for language acquisition. However, the comparison between maternal and paternal communication is still little studied: who asks more questions, who gives more orders, with what purposes?</p>
					<p>In a literature review, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Tamis-LeMonda, Baumweel, and Cristofaro (2012</xref>) conclude that fathers and mothers are similar in adapting statements to the age of children, in reference to objects and events, in the production of explicit rather than implicit directive acts. They differ, however, in the quality and quantity of speech. While mothers use more declarative statements, talk more often with their children in longer conversational turns, fathers use more directive statements, more clarification requests and questions about past events (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2012</xref>). Similar results were found in a study on the Portuguese language, where mothers rely more on verbal language than fathers do, i.e., they more often take greater initiative to speak and talk (syncopated and slowed speech), and they use verbal sequences of an expansive nature more frequently and make more direct compliments (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Alves, Fuertes, &amp; Sousa, 2015</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Tamis-LeMonda et al. (2012</xref>) also noted that mothers repeat more what children say and use closed questions more often, while fathers use more affirmative statements to direct action and ask their children to repeat their statements. In an empirical study with 2- and 3-year-olds from disadvantaged backgrounds, the quality, quantity and diversity of maternal speech was associated with greater advances in language acquisition and child development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Song, Spier, &amp; Tamis-LeMonda, 2013</xref>). Similarly, the parents’ level of education appears in several studies as a predictor of language development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Pan, Rowe, Spier, &amp; Tamis-LeMonda, 2004</xref>).</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Empirical study</title>
				<p>This study aims to contribute to understanding in regards to how Portuguese parents interact and communicate with their children. With this intention, fathers and mothers were observed separately, in a situation of free play with their children of 15 months of age. The sample comprised 80 dyads (40 mother-child, 40 father-child) with children who had no significant risk conditions (25 boys and 15 girls) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Faria, 2011</xref>). The aims of the study were: to analyze the quality of parent-child interaction; to compare mothers’ and fathers’ interactive behaviors with their children; and to compare the language directed to sons and daughters by fathers and mothers. According to the aims, three hypotheses were investigated: there are gender differences in the interactive behavior of fathers and mothers with their children; there are gender differences in the communication styles of fathers and mothers with their children; the gender of children conditions both the interaction and the communication of parents.</p>
				<p><italic>Subjects:</italic> 80 dyads - 40 mother-child and 40 parent-child - filmed in a free play situation for three minutes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Faria, 2011</xref>). All of the children were 15 months (25 boys and 15 girls) and lived with their mothers and fathers in the same home.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t11">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Mean and standard deviation of subject’s demographic data</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="center"> </td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic></td>
									<td align="center">(<italic>SD</italic>)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Gestational Age</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 38.82</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>SD</italic> = 1.113</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Apgar at 1 minute</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 8.78</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>SD</italic> = 0.832</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Apgar at 5 minutes</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 9.75</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>SD</italic> = 0.75</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center"> </td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic></td>
									<td align="center">(<italic>SD</italic>)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Mothers age</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 29.80</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>SD</italic> = 5.19</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Fathers age</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 33.90</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>SD</italic> = 6.58</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Mothers education</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 11.08</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>SD</italic> = 4.257</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Fathers education</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>M</italic> = 9.27</td>
									<td align="center"><italic>SD</italic> = 4.466</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>Regarding employment, taking into account the national classification system for professions, the sample has a middle or lower middle socioeconomic status.</p>
				<p><italic>Procedures:</italic> After the data collection procedure was explained to the parents and their consent obtained, they were asked to spontaneously play with their child as they would usually do during their play time. At their disposal they had a box containing 10 toys with different degrees of difficulty: one below the zone of proximal development (sensorial stimulation toys - auditory, visual and tactile - like colored turtle, piano, rocks or bells with sounds), others in the zone of real development (action-reaction toys, symbolic association toys such as dolls or picture books), others in the zone of potential development (docking and stacking games for children aged 18 and 24 months). The filming took place in the family context of the child or in a clinical office, depending on the parents’ choice. Each child was filmed in dyadic interaction with each parent independently for 3 minutes. Each video was transcribed taking into account all interactions (verbal and nonverbal) that occurred between the pairs during this interval. Below is a description of the interactions using the following framework:</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t12">
						<label>Table 2</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Operationalization of analysis categories</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="center">Time</th>
									<th align="center">Second by second.</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Vocalizations by the adult</td>
									<td align="center">Transcription of: articulate language, words, interjections, onomatopeias, vocalic utterances and manifestations of other communicative behaviors (e.g., laughter).</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Vocalizations by the child</td>
									<td align="center">Transcription of: articulate language, words, interjections, onomatopeias, vocalic utterances and manifestations of other communicative behaviors (e.g., laughter).</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Nonverbal adult and child behaviors</td>
									<td align="center">Description of: movements of hands/arms and legs, facial expressions, movements.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Verbal and non-verbal affects</td>
									<td align="center">Behaviors with an evident affective tone - facial expression and/or voice tonality.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Context</td>
									<td align="center">Location, relative positioning of partners, distance between partners, intercurrences (e.g., outside noise).</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>We consider interaction in Tomasello’s sense, as a participation in collaborative activities, involving joint attention and shared objects and contexts, between responsive partners (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Tomasello, 2009</xref>). In fact, the child’s action, the others’ action and the interaction with significant others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Nelson, 1998</xref>) are central to the development.</p>
				<p>For the analysis of interactions, we took five of Alves’s categories (2013): play episodes - cohesive interaction units organized around a topic. Within each episode we observed sequences of interactions in which subjects engage verbally or there is involvement but no verbalization: the former being interactive verbal sequences - and the latter interactive nonverbal sequences. In each interaction sequence, verbal affects and nonverbal affects were also analyzed.</p>
				<p>Starting from the work of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Alves (2013</xref>), the following were categorized:</p>
				<p>Alves’s definitions of behaviors (2013) were based on the Infant Regulatory Scoring System (SSRIs), a microanalytical coding system of children’s behavior, second by second, devised by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Tronick and Weinberg (1990</xref>). Each behavior was rated according to the dyadic functioning and taking into account the context itself, the categories being mutually exclusive.</p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t13">
						<label>Table 3</label>
						<caption>
							<title>Interactive behavior categories</title>
						</caption>
						<table>
							<colgroup>
								<col span="2"/>
							</colgroup>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">1 - <italic>Interactive verbal sequences</italic></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Simple</td>
									<td align="center">Behavior of one partner and direct response by the other to maintain interaction.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Interrupted</td>
									<td align="center">The partner does not continue the other’s behavior.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Expansive</td>
									<td align="center">The partner accepts other’s behavior by reformulating or correcting.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Extensive</td>
									<td align="center">The partner accepts other’s behavior by widening to new possibilities.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">2 - <italic>Verbal affects</italic></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Praise</td>
									<td align="center">Manifestation of appreciation by the other.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Positive reinforcement</td>
									<td align="center">Manifestation of support and appreciation of other’s verbal and/or nonverbal activity.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Negative reinforcement</td>
									<td align="center">Manifestation of indifference or disapproval of other’s verbal and/or nonverbal activity.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Neutral reinforcement</td>
									<td align="center">Manifestation of affect that cannot be included in the previous categories.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center" colspan="2">3 - <italic>Nonverbal affects</italic></td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Positive facial expression</td>
									<td align="center">The partner is attentive, available, smiling and appropriate to the interaction.</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td align="center">Negative facial expression</td>
									<td align="center">The partner is inattentive, angry, tense and impassive.</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>The videos were transcribed and subsequently analyzed using indicators that provide information about children’s language - quantity and diversity - as well as the social and pragmatic aspects. The amount of child-directed speech was analyzed while taking the number of statements and the number of words of fathers and mothers into account. The diversity of language was measured by only taking the number of verbs, names and conjunctions into account. The proportion of statements categorized, such as order, praise, etc. was calculated as a pragmatic social indicator of child-directed language.</p>
				<p>In order to analyze child-directed language, the following categories were created: verbal affects: positive vocalizations and negative vocalizations, and statements: interrogation, requests (for action and attention), explanation, order, praise, naming, comment, negative evaluation. In the transcriptions, the statements were segmented according to prosodic and pragmatic criteria. Thus, a statement was defined as any sequence of words preceded or followed by a pause, change of turn and intonational tone. The categories order, praise, interrogation, request, etc., resulted from the previous analysis of the videos and the bibliographic review (Rowe, 2008; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Serra, Serrat, Solé, Bel, &amp; Aparici, 2000</xref>), and took the linguistic and prosodic format of statements and their purpose into account. For example, the interrogation category is defined either by linguistic structures (What is it? Where…? How…?), intonation curve (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Mateus et al., 2003</xref>) or purpose: constituting an act in which the speaker requests information from his/her partner.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="results">
				<title>Results</title>
				<p>From previous normality tests of continuous variables, we opted for parametric tests. Data analysis was performed using three types of statistics: descriptive, to describe means and standard deviations of the selected indicators, student’s <italic>t</italic>-test, for comparison of means, and Pearson’s correlation test, to study the association between variables. The accepted level of significancwe was 0.5 and the number of cases in all analyses was 40 (there were no drop outs).</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Interactive behaviors of fathers and mothers</title>
					<p>The study was designed to compare the interactive behavior of fathers and mothers in the following dimensions: play episodes, interactive verbal sequences, interactive nonverbal sequences, and verbal and nonverbal affects.</p>
					<sec>
						<title>Differences and associations in the communicative episodes initiated by fathers, mothers and children</title>
						<p>From the student’s t-test, study hypothesis 1, there were no gender differences in the interactive behavior of fathers and mothers with their children, i.e., there were no significant differences between the fathers’ and mothers’ means in the studied dimensions (<italic>M</italic>
 <sub>episodes initiated by mother</sub>=2.18; <italic>SD</italic>
 <sub>episodes initiated by mother</sub>=1.81; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>episodes initiated by father</sub>=1.63; <italic>SD</italic>
 <sub>episodes initiated by father</sub>=1.35). Moreover, the analysis indicated that there were no significant differences in episodes started by mothers or fathers [<italic>t</italic>(39)=1.41; <italic>ns</italic>]<italic>.</italic> Although there were no differences between the means, we sought to understand if mothers’ and fathers’ behaviors could be correlated positively or negatively. According to Pearson’s correlation test, there were no significant associations between maternal and paternal behavior in regards to initiated episodes (<italic>r</italic>=-0.130; <italic>n</italic>=40, <italic>ns</italic>)<italic>.</italic></p>
						<p>Subsequently, when the means of episodes started by children with parents or mothers (<italic>M</italic>
 <sub>episodes initiated by child with mother</sub>=1.90; <italic>SD</italic>
 <sub>episodes initiated by child with mother</sub>=1.32; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>episodes initiated by child with father</sub>=1.50; <italic>SD</italic>
 <sub>episodes initiated by child with father</sub>=1.24) were compared through the student’s t-test, no significant differences were found [<italic>t</italic>(39)=1.26; <italic>ns</italic>]<italic>.</italic> In addition, the episodes started by children with fathers and mothers were not significant correlated either (<italic>r</italic>=0.230, <italic>n</italic>=40, <italic>ns</italic>)<italic>.</italic></p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Differences and associations in the interactive verbal sequences performed by fathers, mothers and children</title>
						<p>According to the student’s t-test, there were no significant differences in the means of maternal and paternal verbal behavior (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="t14">Table 4</xref>), as far as verbal sequences are concerned: simple [<italic>t</italic>(39)=0.62; <italic>ns</italic>]<italic>,</italic> interrupted [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-0.84; <italic>ns</italic>], expansive [<italic>t</italic>(39)=0.18; <italic>ns</italic>] and extensive [<italic>t</italic>(39)=1.66; <italic>ns</italic>]<italic>.</italic></p>
						<p>
							<table-wrap id="t14">
								<label>Table 4</label>
								<caption>
									<title>Means and standard deviations of interactive verbal sequences</title>
								</caption>
								<table>
									<colgroup>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
									</colgroup>
									<thead>
										<tr>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Maternal M</italic></th>
											<th align="center">(<italic>SD</italic>)</th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Paternal M</italic></th>
											<th align="center">(<italic>SD</italic>)</th>
										</tr>
									</thead>
									<tbody>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Simple Verbal Sequences</td>
											<td align="center">49.48</td>
											<td align="center">27.33</td>
											<td align="center">47.43</td>
											<td align="center">23.94</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Interrupted Verbal Sequences</td>
											<td align="center">14.38</td>
											<td align="center">8.73</td>
											<td align="center">15.58</td>
											<td align="center">9.91</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Expansive Verbal Sequences</td>
											<td align="center">6.35</td>
											<td align="center">5.36</td>
											<td align="center">6.15</td>
											<td align="center">5.24</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Extensive Verb Sequences</td>
											<td align="center">11.50</td>
											<td align="center">10.33</td>
											<td align="center">8.55</td>
											<td align="center">7.93</td>
										</tr>
									</tbody>
								</table>
							</table-wrap>
						</p>
						<p>However, paternal and maternal behaviors are correlated in verbal terms of simple and interrupted sequences with children (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="t15">Table 5</xref>).</p>
						<p>
							<table-wrap id="t15">
								<label>Table 5</label>
								<caption>
									<title>Pearson correlations between fathers’ and mothers’ Verbal Behaviors</title>
								</caption>
								<table>
									<colgroup>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col span="4"/>
									</colgroup>
									<thead>
										<tr>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center" colspan="4"><italic>Maternal Verbal Behavior</italic></th>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Simple sequences</italic></th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Interrupted Sequences</italic></th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Expansive Sequences</italic></th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Extensive Sequences</italic></th>
										</tr>
									</thead>
									<tbody>
										<tr>
											<td align="center" rowspan="4"><italic>Paternal Verbal Behavior</italic></td>
											<td align="center"><italic>Simple sequences</italic></td>
											<td align="center">0.673<sup>***</sup></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center"><italic>Interrupted Sequences</italic></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">0.533<sup>***</sup></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center"><italic>Expansive Sequences</italic></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">0.152</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center"><italic>Extensive Sequences</italic></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">0.096</td>
										</tr>
									</tbody>
								</table>
								<table-wrap-foot>
									<fn id="TFN5">
										<p>*** p&lt;0.001, n=40</p>
									</fn>
								</table-wrap-foot>
							</table-wrap>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Differences and associations in interactive nonverbal sequences</title>
						<p>According to the student’s t-test, we found that there are significant differences in mothers’ and fathers’ nonverbal behaviors at the level of nonverbal sequences: simple [<italic>t</italic>(39)=0.07; <italic>ns</italic>], interrupted, [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-0.08; <italic>ns</italic>]<italic>,</italic> extensive [<italic>t</italic>(39)=0.72; <italic>ns</italic>], the exception being for the category of expansive sequences [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-3.01; <italic>p</italic>=0.004], as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t16">Table 6</xref>.</p>
						<p>
							<table-wrap id="t16">
								<label>Table 6</label>
								<caption>
									<title>Means and standard deviation of Interactive Nonverbal Sequences</title>
								</caption>
								<table>
									<colgroup>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
									</colgroup>
									<thead>
										<tr>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Maternal M</italic></th>
											<th align="center">(<italic>SD</italic>)</th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Paternal M</italic></th>
											<th align="center">(<italic>SD</italic>)</th>
										</tr>
									</thead>
									<tbody>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Simple Nonverbal Sequences</td>
											<td align="center">7.20</td>
											<td align="center">6.06</td>
											<td align="center">7.13</td>
											<td align="center">5.40</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Interrupted Nonverbal Sequences</td>
											<td align="center">6.25</td>
											<td align="center">4.33</td>
											<td align="center">6.20</td>
											<td align="center">4.39</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Expansive Nonverbal Sequences</td>
											<td align="center">0.88</td>
											<td align="center">1.36</td>
											<td align="center">2.28</td>
											<td align="center">3.25</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Extensive Nonverbal Sequences</td>
											<td align="center">1.40</td>
											<td align="center">2.24</td>
											<td align="center">1.70</td>
											<td align="center">3.00</td>
										</tr>
									</tbody>
								</table>
							</table-wrap>
						</p>
						<p>However, these paternal and maternal behaviors are correlated in all dimensions (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t17">Table 7</xref>). This means that when mothers exhibit more nonverbal behavior with children, the fathers exhibit these behaviors with them more often as well. Thus, children who receive more nonverbal responses from their mothers also do from their fathers.</p>
						<p>
							<table-wrap id="t17">
								<label>Table 7</label>
								<caption>
									<title>Pearson’s correlations between maternal and paternal nonverbal behaviors</title>
								</caption>
								<table>
									<colgroup>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col span="4"/>
									</colgroup>
									<thead>
										<tr>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center" colspan="4"><italic>Maternal Nonverbal Behavior</italic></th>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Simple sequences</italic></th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Interrupted Sequences</italic></th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Expansive Sequences</italic></th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Extensive Sequences</italic></th>
										</tr>
									</thead>
									<tbody>
										<tr>
											<td align="center" rowspan="4"><italic>Comportamento Não Verbal paterno</italic></td>
											<td align="center"><italic>Simple sequences</italic></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center"><italic>Interrupted Sequences</italic></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">0,509<sup>***</sup></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center"><italic>Expansive Sequences</italic></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">0,435</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center"><italic>Extensive Sequences</italic></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">0,521</td>
										</tr>
									</tbody>
								</table>
								<table-wrap-foot>
									<fn id="TFN6">
										<p>*** p &lt;0.001, n = 40</p>
									</fn>
								</table-wrap-foot>
							</table-wrap>
						</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Affective Behaviors</title>
					<sec>
						<title>Differences and associations in fathers’ and mothers’ verbal affective responses</title>
						<p>According to the student’s t-test, mothers exhibit more affective behavior in terms of praise than fathers [<italic>t</italic>(39)=2.93; <italic>p</italic>=0.022]. However, there are significant differences at the level of maternal and paternal means in positive reinforcement [<italic>t</italic>(39)=1.80; <italic>ns</italic>], negative reinforcement [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-1.04; <italic>ns</italic>] and neutral reinforcement [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-1.64; <italic>ns</italic>]. For means and standard deviations, see <xref ref-type="table" rid="t18">Table 8</xref>:</p>
						<p>
							<table-wrap id="t18">
								<label>Table 8</label>
								<caption>
									<title>Means and standard deviations of fathers’ and mothers’ verbal affective responses</title>
								</caption>
								<table>
									<colgroup>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
									</colgroup>
									<thead>
										<tr>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Maternal</italic></th>
											<th align="center">(<italic>SD</italic>)</th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Paternal</italic></th>
											<th align="center">(<italic>SD</italic>)</th>
										</tr>
									</thead>
									<tbody>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Praise</td>
											<td align="center">0.38</td>
											<td align="center">0.77</td>
											<td align="center">0.05</td>
											<td align="center">0.31</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Positive reinforcement</td>
											<td align="center">37.20</td>
											<td align="center">19.34</td>
											<td align="center">32.57</td>
											<td align="center">13.53</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Negative reinforcement</td>
											<td align="center">0.72</td>
											<td align="center">1.37</td>
											<td align="center">1.12</td>
											<td align="center">2.25</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Neutral reinforcement</td>
											<td align="center">3.47</td>
											<td align="center">3.75</td>
											<td align="center">4,700</td>
											<td align="center">4.63</td>
										</tr>
									</tbody>
								</table>
							</table-wrap>
						</p>
						<p>However, as can be seen in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t19">Table 9</xref>, it is interesting to note that mothers’ positive reinforcement is correlated with fathers’ positive reinforcement.</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Differences and associations in fathers’ and mothers’ physical affective responses</title>
						<p>Fathers and mothers do not differ as regards affection [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-0.23. <italic>ns</italic>, <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>affective responses by mother</sub>=0.35; <italic>SD</italic>=1.00; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>affective responses by father</sub>=0.27; <italic>SD</italic>=0.82]. Nevertheless, mothers’ and fathers’ affective behavior are correlated (<italic>r</italic>=0.350, <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.005), as are children behaviors with parents (<italic>r</italic>=0.397, <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.001).</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Nonverbal affects - differences and associations in fathers’ and mothers’ facial expressions</title>
						<p>Fathers and mothers do not differ in regards to positive [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-1.34; <italic>ns</italic>; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>affective responses by mother</sub>=11.34; <italic>SD</italic>=6.78; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>affective responses by father</sub>=14.25; <italic>SD</italic>=4.53] and negative [<italic>t</italic>(39)=-0.76; <italic>ns</italic>; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>affective responses mother</sub>=1.75; <italic>SD</italic>=1.00; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>affective responses father</sub>=2.31; <italic>SD</italic>=2.60] facial expressions. However, mothers’ and fathers’ positive facial expressions are highly correlated (<italic>r</italic>=0.730, <italic>n</italic>=40, <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.001), as are mothers’ and fathers’ negative facial expressions (<italic>r</italic>=0.786, <italic>n</italic>=40, <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.001).</p>
						<p>
							<table-wrap id="t19">
								<label>Table 9</label>
								<caption>
									<title>Pearson correlations for paired samples between maternal and paternal affective responses</title>
								</caption>
								<table>
									<colgroup>
										<col/>
										<col span="4"/>
									</colgroup>
									<thead>
										<tr>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center" colspan="4"><italic>Maternal</italic></th>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Praise</italic></th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Positive Reinforcement</italic></th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Negative Reinforcement</italic></th>
											<th align="center"><italic>Neutral Reinforcement</italic></th>
										</tr>
									</thead>
									<tbody>
										<tr>
											<td align="center"><italic>Praise</italic></td>
											<td align="center">-0.079</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center"><italic>Positive reinforcement</italic></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">0.559<sup>***</sup></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center"><italic>Negative reinforcement</italic></td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">0.160</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center"><italic>Neutral reinforcement</italic></td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">-</td>
											<td align="center">0.381</td>
										</tr>
									</tbody>
								</table>
								<table-wrap-foot>
									<fn id="TFN7">
										<p>*** p &lt;0.001</p>
									</fn>
								</table-wrap-foot>
							</table-wrap>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Differences and associations in fathers’ and mothers’ communication</title>
						<p>The second aim was to study and compare the language directed to sons and daughters by fathers and mothers. We hypothesized that there are gender differences in the communication styles of fathers and mothers with their sons and daughters. We analyzed the statements that mothers and fathers direct towards their sons and daughters based on the following categories: questions, request for attention, request for action, explanation, order, praise, naming, comment, and negative evaluation.</p>
						<p>We found that mothers gave more praise/stimulation [<italic>t</italic>(40)=2.878; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.005 <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>mother’s praise</sub>=2.58, <italic>SD</italic>=2.56; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>father’s praise</sub>=1.28, <italic>SD</italic>=1.69] and naming [<italic>t</italic>(40)=2.033; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>mother’s naming</sub>=3.68, <italic>SD</italic>=4.53; <italic>M</italic>
 <sub>father’s naming</sub>=2.23, <italic>SD</italic>=2.39] compared with the fathers.</p>
						<p>It should be noted that fathers’ and mothers’ behaviors are correlated in the categories referring to questions, attention requests, comments and orders (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t20">Table 10</xref>), i.e., children of fathers who ask more questions have mothers who do the same, and the same is true for attention requests, comments and orders.</p>
						<p>
							<table-wrap id="t20">
								<label>Table 10</label>
								<caption>
									<title>Pearson’s correlations with paired subjects relative to indicators of child-directed language</title>
								</caption>
								<table>
									<colgroup>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
										<col/>
									</colgroup>
									<thead>
										<tr>
											<th align="center"> </th>
											<th align="center">Mot Quest</th>
											<th align="center">Fat Quest</th>
											<th align="center">Mot att request</th>
											<th align="center">Fat att request</th>
											<th align="center">Mot action request</th>
											<th align="center">Fat action req</th>
											<th align="center">Mot expl</th>
											<th align="center">Fat expl</th>
											<th align="center">Mot ord</th>
											<th align="center">Fat ord</th>
											<th align="center">Mot praise</th>
											<th align="center">Fat Praise</th>
											<th align="center">With Mother</th>
											<th align="center">With Father</th>
										</tr>
									</thead>
									<tbody>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Mother’s questions</td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center">0.543<sup>***</sup></td>
											<td align="center">-0.012</td>
											<td align="center">0.067</td>
											<td align="center">0.227</td>
											<td align="center">-0.070</td>
											<td align="center">0.330<sup>*</sup></td>
											<td align="center">-0.005</td>
											<td align="center">0.034</td>
											<td align="center">0.316<sup>*</sup></td>
											<td align="center">0.053</td>
											<td align="center">-0.161</td>
											<td align="center">0.441<sup>**</sup></td>
											<td align="center">0.047</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Father’s questions</td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center">0.068</td>
											<td align="center">-0.183</td>
											<td align="center">0.060</td>
											<td align="center">-0.022</td>
											<td align="center">0.068</td>
											<td align="center">0.125</td>
											<td align="center">0.101</td>
											<td align="center">0.365<sup>*</sup></td>
											<td align="center">-0.285</td>
											<td align="center">-0.007</td>
											<td align="center">0.481<sup>**</sup></td>
											<td align="center">0.244</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Mother’s attention requests</td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center">0.369<sup>*</sup></td>
											<td align="center">0.345<sup>*</sup></td>
											<td align="center">0.276</td>
											<td align="center">-0.061</td>
											<td align="center">0.200</td>
											<td align="center">0.063</td>
											<td align="center">-0.035</td>
											<td align="center">0.053</td>
											<td align="center">-0.077</td>
											<td align="center">0.242</td>
											<td align="center">0.245</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Father’s attention requests</td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center">0.170</td>
											<td align="center">0.108</td>
											<td align="center">0.207</td>
											<td align="center">0.320<sup>*</sup></td>
											<td align="center">0.133</td>
											<td align="center">0.064</td>
											<td align="center">0.091</td>
											<td align="center">-0.106</td>
											<td align="center">-0.166</td>
											<td align="center">0.075</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Mother’s action request</td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center">0.099</td>
											<td align="center">0.217</td>
											<td align="center">0.285</td>
											<td align="center">0.133</td>
											<td align="center">0.111</td>
											<td align="center">0.147</td>
											<td align="center">0.009</td>
											<td align="center">0.264</td>
											<td align="center">0.237</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Father’s action request</td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center">-0.079</td>
											<td align="center">0.265</td>
											<td align="center">0.185</td>
											<td align="center">-0.106</td>
											<td align="center">-0.111</td>
											<td align="center">-0.078</td>
											<td align="center">-0.073</td>
											<td align="center">0.165</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Mother’s explanation</td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center">0.213</td>
											<td align="center">0.196</td>
											<td align="center">-0.104</td>
											<td align="center">0.110</td>
											<td align="center">0.115</td>
											<td align="center">0.199</td>
											<td align="center">-0.143</td>
										</tr>
										<tr>
											<td align="center">Father’s explanation</td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center"> </td>
											<td align="center">-0.068</td>
											<td align="center">-0.098</td>
											<td align="center">-0.265</td>
											<td align="center">0.334</td>
											<td align="center">-0.057</td>
											<td align="center">-0.101</td>
										</tr>
									</tbody>
								</table>
								<table-wrap-foot>
									<fn id="TFN8">
										<p>*** p&lt;0.001; ** p&lt;0.01; * p&lt;0.05</p>
									</fn>
								</table-wrap-foot>
							</table-wrap>
						</p>
					</sec>
					<sec>
						<title>Relationship between dependent variables and demographic variables</title>
						<p>In regards to the relationship between dependent variables and demographic variables, we can observe that children’s gender affects the interaction and communication between parents and children. According to the student’s t-test, boys exhibit significantly more avoidance of their mother [<italic>t</italic>(38)=-2.459; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.01] than girls. Girls exhibit more negative vocalizations [<italic>t</italic>(38)=2.161; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05] and more negative facial expressions [<italic>t</italic>(38)=2.158; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05] addressed to their fathers than to their mothers.</p>
						<p>Another important variable seems to be Maternal Education. Mothers with more years spent in education have higher rates of avoidance with their children (<italic>r</italic>=0.442; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.005), and in turn, children also have more avoidance towards mothers with more education (<italic>r</italic>=0.338; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05).</p>
						<p>Interestingly, children with more siblings tend to start more activities (<italic>r</italic>=-0380; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05). Older mothers (<italic>r</italic>=0.338; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05) and fathers (<italic>r</italic>=0.421; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.01) tend to exhibit more nonverbal behavior.</p>
						<p>Birth factors, particularly Gestational Age and the Apgar scale, conditioned the results. Indeed, infants’ gestational age is positively correlated with the quantity of mothers’ positive facial expressions (<italic>r</italic>=0.349; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05) and negatively correlated with mothers’ negative facial expressions (<italic>r</italic>=-0338; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05). In addition, infants’ gestational age is positively correlated with fathers’ positive affective behavior (<italic>r</italic>=0.444; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05).</p>
						<p>Children born with lower Apgar scores tend to exhibit negative facial expressions (<italic>r</italic>=0.718; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05) and negative affective behavior (<italic>r</italic>=0.329; <italic>n</italic>=40; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0.05) more frequently with their mothers.</p>
					</sec>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="discussion">
				<title>Discussion</title>
				<p>This study was designed to analyze and compare the interactive behavior of parents with children aged 15 months in a free-play situation, as well as to compare the language used by their parents. Regarding the first hypothesis of the study, gender differences in mother-child and father-child interactive behaviors, when mother-child and father-child dyads were compared regarding play episodes, verbal sequences and nonverbal sequences, no significant differences were found. However, when the mother-child dyad and father-child dyad were compared, significant correlations were found.</p>
				<p>The data indicate that in the category of verbal sequences, maternal and paternal behaviors are correlated in two dimensions: simple sequences and interrupted sequences. Thus, children who receive more simple and interrupted verbal responses from their mothers receive the same from their fathers. This result should be carefully considered, because it can be an indicator of the importance of input (or deficit of input), i.e, children who receive more input from the mother get the same from the father, and children who receive less input from the mother also receive less from the father. As previously mentioned, the quantity and quality of the language directed to a child is crucial in his/her development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Hoff, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Pan et al., 2004</xref>).</p>
				<p>On the other hand, simple sequences and interrupted sequences can be considered as less elaborate interactive behaviors than expansive and/or extensive sequences (which require more time and greater attention by the adult). Why do we only find correlation between the first two subcategories?</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Alves (2013</xref>), in an exploratory study with 20 dyads in the same <italic>corpus,</italic> concludes that mothers rely more on verbal interaction with their children, i.e., they speak more and for longer periods than fathers do. If we broaden the number of dyads studied (80), the difference fades. This result was found in other cultures (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Yago, Hirose, Okamitsu, Okabayashi, Hiroi, Nakagawa, &amp; Omori, 2014</xref>). Similarly, when mothers’ and fathers’ nonverbal behaviors are compared, there are no significant differences. However, maternal and paternal nonverbal behaviors are correlated in all dimensions, i.e., children who receive more nonverbal responses from their mothers have the same from their fathers. So it seems that more than gender differences of parents or children, cohabitation (father/mother) is a variable to take into account. Parental coexistence may be modeling the behavior and styles of both verbal and nonverbal interaction. It should be noted that nonverbal behavior and less elaborate and extensive verbal behavior are those for which correlation was observed.</p>
				<p>In regards to verbal affects, mothers exhibit on average more affective behavior than fathers. However, there were no significant differences observed in the categories praise, negative reinforcement and neutral reinforcement. It should be noted, however, that positive reinforcement and neutral reinforcement by the mother are correlated with the same types of reinforcements by the father. Mothers and fathers alike positively reinforce the child during play, which certainly increases the likelihood of the child being motivated and repeating the desired behavior.</p>
				<p>For non-verbal affects, in the category positive and negative facial expressions, fathers and mothers do not show statistically significant differences. These behaviors, however, are highly correlated.</p>
				<p>In regards to the second hypothesis, it is concluded that, as is true for children-directed language, there were no significant differences in most categories under analysis. However, there are significant differences in the means of fathers’ and mothers’ verbal behaviors in relation to statements: praise - mothers gave on average more praise than fathers; naming - mothers used on average more naming than fathers insignificantly, comments and negative evaluation statements (on average mothers made more comments). These results corroborate previous national studies showing that mothers have more positive responses towards their children than fathers (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Alves et al., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Faria, Santos, &amp; Fuertes, 2014</xref>). The naming category includes statements in which names are assigned to objects or events of the context and highlights the need to name the surrounding reality. Naming and manipulation of objects favor learning of the lexicon and hence the child’s knowledge is widened and deepened (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, Berk, &amp; Singer, 2009</xref>).</p>
				<p>In the naming behavior, it is observed that names are repeated several times. The importance given to child-directed speech and the role played by repetition in the learning of language cannot be overstated (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Veneziano, 2014</xref>). In the corpus, we can see that mothers not only name a lot but also do it repetitively, reusing the same word in different syntactic contexts. Also noteworthy is the use of various strategies to highlight the word: highlight in a sentence, prosodic highlight, or even syllabic utterance. A more referential speech, in which the world around the child is designated or explained, is a richer input, with more names and adjectives (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2012</xref>), which promotes the development of vocabulary. In an empirical study with children aged 2 and 3 years from disadvantaged social backgrounds, the quality, quantity and diversity of maternal speech were associated with advances in language acquisition and child development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Song et al., 2013</xref>). As previously noted, in the corpus under analysis, although mothers use more verbs and names and fathers more conjunctions (associated with more complex syntax), these differences are not statistically significant.</p>
				<p>In addition to significant differences in the praise and naming categories, the results show that fathers’ and mothers’ behaviors are correlated in the following categories: questions, attention requests, positive comments and orders. In studies on children-directed speech, it was concluded that fathers’ speech would be more challenging for the child than mothers’ and, therefore, would establish a bridge (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Tomasello, Conti-Ramsden, &amp; Ewert, 1990</xref>) between the child’s language and the surroundings. Thus, fathers and mothers have complementary roles. In our study, compliance stands out more than complementarity, since fathers and mothers have a wide range of related verbal behaviors. More than differences, fathers and mothers appear to show converging communicative behaviors. As a study on gender, this study points out new ways for research on communication styles and cohabitation.</p>
				<p>The third hypothesis was that children’s gender determines the interaction or communication from parents. The results show no significant differences in parental behavior, whether it is in regards to boys or girls. However, boys show higher avoidance behavior with mothers and girls express more negative vocalizations and emotions towards fathers. This finding corroborates the results of previous studies indicating greater synchronization in same gender dyads (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Manlove &amp; Vernon-Feagans, 2002</xref>). If boys exhibit more avoidance towards the mother than girls, and girls show more negative vocalizations and facial expressions towards the father, one also finds that fathers and mothers tend to have different expectations and relationships with sons and daughters. In a study with older children (3-5 years) in a situation of parent-child play, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Barroso et al. (2017</xref>) found that fathers respect girls more and ignore boys’ contribution more. Furthermore, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Faria et al. (2014</xref>) point to greater synchronization in same-gender dyads.</p>
				<p>The results showed sociodemographic differences. It is noted that fathers’ and mothers’ avoidance of children is correlated with paternal and maternal schooling. Children’s avoidance towards parents is also correlated with paternal and maternal education. As for the variable age of parents, it is clear that older parents tend to display more nonverbal behavior.</p>
				<p>Finally, let us reflect on the children-related variables that influence the interaction. These include physical strength, gestational weight, Apgar score, birth order and number of siblings. Gestational weight and Apgar score influence the relationship that parents have with their children: more robust babies and those with better Apgar scores appear to evoke more positive parental behaviors. Children with more siblings tend to start more activities. Is this behavior a result of interaction with brothers and sisters? Are extended families with many children a context in which children develop a greater sense of autonomy and initiative? In a research project on preschool children (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Silva, 2009</xref>), no relationship was found between the number of siblings and construction of autonomy. This is an aspect that merits further study.</p>
				<p>Focusing on the quality of mothers’ and fathers’ interaction and communication with their sons and daughters, in an observational study, we highlight the correlation of interparental behaviors in the relationship with their children. More studies are needed to investigate how the quality of the relational behavior of a parent influences the other’s behavior and the way parents interact in triadic situations, i.e., father, mother and son/daughter.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
	</sub-article>
</article>