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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">pusp</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Psicologia USP</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Psicol. USP</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="ppub">0103-6564</issn>
			<issn pub-type="epub">1678-5177</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Instituto de Psicologia da Universidade de São Paulo</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/0103-6564e190020</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="other">00220</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Adição à internet ou uso problemático da internet? Qual dos termos usar?<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</article-title>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="fr">
					<trans-title>Dépendance à Internet ou utilisation problématique d’Internet? Quel terme utiliser?</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="es">
					<trans-title>Adición a Internet o uso problemático de Internet: ¿Qué término usar?</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7241-9036</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Fernandes</surname>
						<given-names>Beatriz</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6640-6033</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Maia</surname>
						<given-names>Berta Rodrigues</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>a</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8020-7623</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Pontes</surname>
						<given-names>Halley M.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>b</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>a</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Faculdade de Filosofia e Ciências Sociais, Centro Regional de Braga, Portugal</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Católica Portuguesa</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Católica Portuguesa</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Filosofia e Ciências Sociais</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Centro Regional de Braga</institution>
				<country country="PT">Portugal</country>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>b</label>
				<institution content-type="original">Universidade da Tasmânia, Departamento de Psicologia. Faculdade de Medicina. Sydney, Austrália</institution>
				<institution content-type="normalized">University of Tasmania</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade da Tasmânia</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Psicologia</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<city>Sydney</city>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="AU">Australia</country>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1">
					<label>*</label>Endereço para correspondência: <email>bmaia@braga.ucp.pt</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>25</day>
				<month>09</month>
				<year>2019</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2019</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>30</volume>
			<elocation-id>e190020</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>21</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2019</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>04</day>
					<month>08</month>
					<year>2019</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="pt">
					<license-p>Este é um artigo publicado em acesso aberto sob uma licença Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>O uso da internet tem aumentado exponencialmente a nível mundial. Ainda que ele não seja por si só negativo, já que integra benefícios vários, alguns indivíduos parecem exibir problemas relacionados com o seu uso excessivo, descontrolado e disfuncional. Consequentemente, tem sido crescente, particularmente nas últimas duas décadas, o interesse dos investigadores em explorar este uso, quando excessivo e pouco saudável. Porém, e sendo um tema/constructo tratado por diferentes autores com quadros teóricos também diferentes, são vários os termos usados na literatura para descrever este fenómeno. Neste sentido, este artigo propõe-se a apresentar o trabalho uma revisão de literatura de dois dos conceitos mais usados e espartilhados na literatura científica, ou seja, adição à internet e uso problemático da internet.</p>
			</abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="fr">
				<title>Résumé</title>
				<p>L’utilisation d’ Internet a augmenté de manière exponentielle dans le monde. Bien que l’utilisation d’ Internet ne soit pas négative en soi, étant donné qu’elle intègre plusieurs avantages, certaines personnes semblent présenter des problèmes liés à son utilisation excessive, incontrôlée et dysfonctionnelle. En conséquence, l’intérêt des chercheurs pour exploiter cet usage, qu’il soit excessif ou malsain, a augmenté, particulièrement au cours des deux dernières décennies. Cependant, étant un thème/construit traité par différents auteurs avec différents cadres théoriques, plusieurs termes sont utilisés dans la littérature pour décrire ce phénomène. En ce sens, nous proposons de présenter dans cet ouvrage une analyse de deux des concepts les plus utilisés et les plus partagés dans la littérature scientifique, à savoir l’addition à internet et son utilisation problématique.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<p>El uso de Internet ha aumentado exponencialmente a nivel mundial. Aunque esto no es por sí solo negativo ya que integra diversos beneficios, algunos individuos parecen presentar problemas relacionados con su uso excesivo, descontrolado y disfuncional. En consecuencia, en las últimas dos décadas ha aumentado cada vez más el interés de los investigadores en estudiar este uso, cuando es excesivo o poco saludable. Sin embargo, y siendo un tema/constructo tratado por diferentes autores con cuadros teóricos también diferentes, son varios los términos usados ​​en la literatura para describir este fenómeno. En este sentido, nos proponemos presentar en este trabajo una revisión de dos de los conceptos más usados y más divididos en la literatura científica, es decir, adición a Internet y uso problemático de Internet.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
				<kwd>adição à internet</kwd>
				<kwd>uso problemático da internet</kwd>
				<kwd>conceptualização</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="fr">
				<title>Mots-clés:</title>
				<kwd>ajout à l’Internet</kwd>
				<kwd>utilisation d’Internet problématique</kwd>
				<kwd>conceptualisation</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>adición a Internet</kwd>
				<kwd>uso problemático de Internet</kwd>
				<kwd>conceptualización</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<award-group award-type="contract">
					<funding-source>FCT (Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia)</funding-source>
					<award-id>PEst-OE/FIL/UI0683/2014</award-id>
				</award-group>
				<funding-statement>Esse trabalho teve apoio de National Funds, proporcionado pela FCT (Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia) para os projetos estratégicos PEst-OE/FIL/UI0683/2014.</funding-statement>
			</funding-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="0"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="75"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introdução</title>
			<p>O uso da internet tem aumentado exponencialmente nos últimos anos, sendo cada vez mais comum. A título ilustrativo, o relatório mais recente do <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Instituto Nacional de Estatística (2014</xref>) dá-nos conta que cerca de 65% da população portuguesa entre os 16 e os 74 anos usa a internet regularmente, sendo o seu uso mais prevalente entre os jovens de 16 a 24 anos. Um relatório publicado pela <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Marktest (2016</xref>) reportou que o número de utilizadores aumentou mais de 10 vezes nos últimos 18 anos, passando de uma penetração de 6,3% em 1997 para 65,4% em 2016. Já a nível mundial, mais de 7.500 milhões de pessoas têm acesso à internet, o que equivale a 49,6% da população mundial, sendo que a Europa se encontra em segundo lugar na taxa de penetração de internet, com uma percentagem de 77,4% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Internet World Stats, 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>Ainda que o uso moderado e saudável da internet por si só não represente riscos significativos e seja, de modo geral, benéfico para a maioria dos utilizadores, uma minoria da população apresenta problemas relacionados ao seu uso excessivo, descontrolado e disfuncional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Pontes, Caplan, &amp; Griffiths, 2016</xref>). Dada sua relevância, o número de estudos publicados sobre a adição à internet tem vindo a aumentar exponencialmente no decorrer das últimas duas décadas, sendo que em 2018 mais de 1.600 estudos foram publicados em revistas científicas nacionais e internacionais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Wiederhold, 2018</xref>). De modo geral, a literatura científica reporta associações consistentes entre o uso problemático da internet a uma diversidade de problemas psicossociais, tais como bem-estar emocional mais pobre (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Griffiths, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Piguet, Berchtold, Akre, &amp; Suris, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Pontes et al., 2016</xref>) ou níveis mais elevados de psicopatologia, como a depressão (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Cabral, Pereira, &amp; Teixeira, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Mendes &amp; Silva, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Pontes, Patrão, &amp; Griffiths, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Tokunaga &amp; Rains, 2016</xref>).</p>
			<p>Ainda não existe consenso na comunidade científica em relação ao termo a utilizar para descrever o uso e abuso das novas tecnologias. Por um lado, há autores que defendem a existência de uma adição às novas tecnologias, incluída nas adições comportamentais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Carbonell, Fúster, Chamarro, &amp; Oberst, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">García del Castillo, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Potenza, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Vivas &amp; Torres, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Young, 1998</xref>). Por outro, há autores que afirmam que o potencial aditivo das novas tecnologias é especulativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Carbonell et al., 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Echeburúa, &amp; Corral, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">García del Castillo, 2013</xref>). Mais recentemente, vários autores têm vindo a reforçar a ideia de que o conceito de adição à internet não é adequado para descrever o fenómeno associado às consequências negativas resultantes do uso excessivo e disfuncional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Starcevic &amp; Aboujaoude, 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>Existem, por isso, diferentes modelos teóricos e terminologias utilizadas para descrever o comportamento excessivo do uso da internet, incluindo <italic>adição à</italic> internet (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Young, 1998</xref>), <italic>uso patológico da</italic> internet (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis, 2001</xref>), <italic>uso problemático da</italic> internet (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Caplan, 2002</xref>), ou <italic>dependência da</italic> internet (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Chen, Tarn, &amp; Han, 2004</xref>). Deste modo, esta revisão irá contribuir para o esclarecimento da terminologia usada nesta área, especificamente sobre os termos adição e uso problemático.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Adição à internet</title>
			<p>A maior parte dos trabalhos iniciais na área da adição à internet foram realizados por Kimberly Young nos Estados Unidos e Mark Griffiths no Reino Unido (e.g., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Griffiths, 1995</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Young, 1998</xref>). De acordo com <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Young (1998</xref>), a adição à internet é um termo amplo que integra uma diversidade de comportamentos e problemas de controlo dos impulsos, estando categorizados em cinco subtipos específicos: adição cibernética (uso compulsivo de sites adultos para <italic>cybersex</italic> e <italic>cyberporn</italic>), adição ao relacionamento cibernético (envolvimento excessivo em relacionamentos on-line), compulsões de rede (jogos on-line obsessivos ou compras), sobrecarga de informações (navegação excessiva) e, por último, adição ao computador (jogo de computador obsessivo).</p>
			<p>A adição à internet tornou-se uma área relevante de investigação (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">King, Delfabbro, &amp; Griffiths, 2012</xref>); porém, atualmente, ainda não existe um consenso relativamente à definição oficial do problema e do seu lugar nas classificações, pelo facto de se tratar de um fenómeno ainda em estudo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Patrão et al., 2017</xref>) e de existirem inúmeras limitações metodológicas relacionadas com a avaliação do construto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">King et al., 2012</xref>).</p>
			<p>A adição à internet pode ser vista como uma adição especificamente psicológica (como o vício em sexo, em compras, em jogos de vídeo etc.), com particularidades comuns a outros tipos de dependência, tais como, a perda de controlo, sintomas de abstinência, forte dependência psicológica, interferência na vida diária e perda de interesse noutras atividades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Kuss &amp; Griffiths, 2017</xref>). A adição à internet tem sido também caracterizada como um padrão de uso mal-adaptativo que pode causar danos clinicamente significativos na vida da pessoa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Elhai, Dvorak, Levine, &amp; Hall, 2017</xref>). Mais recentemente, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Kuss e Pontes (2019</xref>) definiram o fenómeno como um padrão comportamental envolvendo a experiência de <italic>craving</italic> disfuncional em relação ao uso da internet por períodos de tempo excessivos sem autorregulação por parte do indivíduo, resultando em significativos prejuízos psicológicos, sociais e funcionais. Ou seja, o indivíduo dependente da internet gasta um tempo total diário notável em atividades on-line que não são essenciais, desenvolvendo um afastamento dos contactos sociais fora da internet<italic>,</italic> uma distorção dos seus objetivos pessoais e dos seus interesses e uma perda do rendimento académico e/ou laboral (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Patrão et al., 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>Para compreender melhor a adição à internet, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Griffiths (2005</xref>) desenvolveu o modelo das componentes da adição que nos refere que todas as adições assentam em seis componentes comuns distintas (saliência, modificação de humor, tolerância, abstinência, conflito e recaída). Ou seja, as adições (com ou sem o uso de substância) fazem parte de um processo biopsicossocial e existem dados crescentes de que os comportamentos excessivos de todos os tipos parecem ter muitas semelhanças. Esta é uma conclusão que recebe suporte de estudos recentes que revelam semelhanças entre diversos tipos de comportamentos aditivos (com ou sem o uso de substância) a nível do circuito neural e ativação da área de reforço comportamental no cérebro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Sharifat, Rashid, &amp; Suppiah, 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>Ao longo dos anos, vários autores propuseram outros modelos para explicar o desenvolvimento e a manutenção dos comportamentos excessivos relacionados com o uso da internet, tais como o modelo do anonimato, da conveniência e do escape (ACE) desenvolvido para avaliar a adição <italic>cybersexual</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Young, Griffin-Shelley, Cooper, O’Mara, &amp; Buchanan, 2000</xref>), o modelo de fases do uso patológico da internet de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Grohol (2017</xref>) e o modelo compreensivo do desenvolvimento e manutenção da adição à internet de Winkler e Dörsing (como citado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Cash, Rae, Steel, &amp; Winkler, 2012</xref>). Mais recentemente, foi desenvolvido o modelo neurobiológico-centralizado proposto por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Brand, Young e Laier (2014</xref>) para tentar explicar as perturbações relacionadas com a internet. Mais recentemente, este modelo foi atualizado para melhor definir a ideia de que todos os comportamentos aditivos são desenvolvidos em consequência da interação entre fatores de risco, respostas afetivas e cognitivas a estímulos específicos, bem como funções executivas (controle inibitório a tomada de decisão) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Brand et al., 2019</xref>). Contudo, este modelo carece de validação empírica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Pontes, Kuss, &amp; Griffiths, 2015</xref>). Em relação à avaliação da adição à internet, um dos instrumentos psicométricos mais populares é o Internet <italic>Addiction Test</italic> (IAT) de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Young (1998</xref>), tendo sido conduzidos estudos de validade factorial, de construto, convergente e discriminante na população portuguesa, por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Pontes, Patrão e Griffiths (2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>Porém, apesar da falta de consenso que existe, esta adição à internet nada tem a ver com o que realmente determina as dependências (tolerância, dependência, síndrome de abstinência etc.) e os critérios de diagnóstico propostos para que a perturbação de adição fosse incluída nos diagnósticos formais do Manual de Diagnóstico e Estatística das Perturbações Mentais (DSM) também não têm sido admitidos, nem pela Associação Americana de Psiquiatria, nem pela Organização Mundial da Saúde - apenas foi incluída a perturbação de jogos de internet com sugestão de estudos futuros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">American Psychiatric Association, 2013</xref>). De acordo com <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Starcevic (2013</xref>), este conceito de adição enfrenta dois tipos de desafios - o primeiro é sobre isso ser uma adição e o segundo diz respeito à internet como uma via à qual um indivíduo está presumivelmente viciado. Ou seja, vários autores (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Griffiths &amp; Szabo, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Pontes &amp; Patrão, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Pontes, Szabo, &amp; Griffiths, 2015</xref>) consideram que o termo “adição” seria mais concreto e adequado para se referir à atividade específica entendida como viciante (por exemplo, dependência de jogos de vídeo on-line). Assim sendo, a nomenclatura existente e frequentemente utilizada para definir o fenómeno apresenta problemas conceptuais resultantes das diferentes posições teóricas existentes. Além disso, a evidência empírica sugere que o termo “adição à internet” deveria ser substituído por outro termo que reflita vícios em atividades on-line específicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Pontes, Szabo, &amp; Griffiths, 2015</xref>).</p>
			<p>Posto isto, podemos afirmar que a adição à internet parece estar relacionada com usos específicos de algumas funcionalidades da internet e não com seu uso generalizado. Isto é, os utilizadores não são “viciados” na internet<italic>,</italic> mas sim em uma ou várias atividades on-line específicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Billieux, 2012</xref>). Além da adição à internet<italic>,</italic> outras adições cibernéticas são frequentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Billieux, 2012</xref>), como a “adição aos vídeojogos on-line” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Billieux et al., 2011</xref>), “adição ao jogo patológico on-line” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Griffiths, 2003</xref>), “adição ao sexo on-line” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Meerkerk, Van den Eijnden, &amp; Garretsen, 2006</xref>) e “adição às redes sociais” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Wilson, Fornasier, &amp; White, 2010</xref>). Todas estas adições acarretam consequências negativas para a vida do indivíduo e apresentam fatores de risco comuns (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Billieux, 2012</xref>). Assim sendo, a adição à internet deveria ser conceituada dentro de uma gama mais ampla de “adições cibernéticas” que passa por comportamentos que dependem de atividades on-line específicas e/ou atividades que envolvem comunicação entre indivíduos através de dispositivos tecnológicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Billieux, 2012</xref>).</p>
			<p>Outro elemento discutível associado à adição à internet é que, ao contrário das dependências, a internet oferece múltiplos benefícios e, como tal, não deve ser vista como um dispositivo a ser criticado como “viciante”: (1) a internet possibilita rapidez na comunicação, possui carácter interativo e é um apoio à aprendizagem (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Spizzirri, Wagner, Mosmann, &amp; Armani, 2012</xref>); (2) a internet tornou-se um importante contexto social para os mais velhos, pois influencia seu bem-estar, isto é, ao usarem a internet aumentam os níveis percebidos de apoio social, reduzem a solidão, melhoram a satisfação com a vida e melhoram seu bem-estar psicológico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Heo, Chun, Lee, Lee, &amp; Kim, 2015</xref>); (3) os estudantes universitários, em particular, podem obter diversos benefícios com o uso da internet para propósitos educacionais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Rayan et al., 2017</xref>) - acesso a periódicos on-line, aprendizagem de idiomas, pesquisa académica, navegação em bibliotecas virtuais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Al-Gamal, Alzayyat, &amp; Ahmad, 2016</xref>) - e, também para fins relacionais - navegação na rede de lazer, socialização on-line e, até mesmo, estabelecimento de relacionamentos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Jones, Johnson-Yale, Millermaier, &amp; Pérez, 2009</xref>); (4) a internet pode ser vista como um meio importante para aumentar a satisfação com a vida entre cidadãos e grupos sociais mais frágeis - pessoas de baixos níveis económicos e/ou pessoas que sofram de problemas de saúde que interferem com o normal funcionamento do seu dia-a-dia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Lissitsa &amp; Chachashvili-Bolotin, 2016</xref>); (5) pode ser usada como um meio para aumentar o apoio social percebido, como por exemplo, através do Facebook, o que por sua vez diminui os níveis de estresse e aumenta o bem-estar psicológico. Ou seja, a internet pode ser vista como um benefício indireto para a saúde (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Wiederhold, 2017</xref>). No geral, ela é uma ferramenta tecnológica altamente difundida que torna a deteção e o diagnóstico de adição difíceis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Young, 2004</xref>).</p>
			<p>São também numerosas as críticas que têm sido apontadas a este conceito: (1) falta de especificidade teórica e conceito de dependência - não dá importância ao que as pessoas estão realmente a fazer quando estão on-line (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Caplan, 2002</xref>); (2) falta de consenso internacional sobre o conceito e o diagnóstico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Griffiths, Kuss, Billieux, &amp; Pontes, 2016</xref>); (3) falta de esclarecimento de questões específicas sobre a adição à internet que incluem três áreas problemáticas estreitamente relacionadas - terminologia, conceções diagnósticas e medidas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Demetrovics, Szeredi, &amp; Rózsa, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Tokunaga, 2015</xref>); (4) grande parte das pesquisas realizadas acerca da adição à internet são estudos exploratórios, que recorrem a amostras auto-selecionadas e não apresentam grupos de controlo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">DeAngelis, 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Tokunaga, 2015</xref>); (5) alguns investigadores consideram que talvez as consequências pessoais, profissionais e sociais atribuídas a este comportamento possam, na verdade, ser apenas sintomas de outras perturbações ou problemas psicológicos primários (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Pies, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Shaffer, Hall, &amp; Vander Bilt, 2000</xref>); e (6) as investigações publicadas carecem de aproximações teóricas de referência e não conseguem determinar relações causais entre as consequências descritas e a utilização da internet caindo no erro de “ignorar a causa comum” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Grohol, 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>Em conclusão, falar em adição à internet é equivocado e a expressão deve ser abandonada, apesar de se ter tornado um termo amplamente utilizado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Pontes et al., 2016</xref>). Acontece que, atualmente, existe uma tendência para “sobre-patologizar” no que respeita aos comportamentos aditivos o que poderá levar a uma avaliação duvidosa da pesquisa acerca da dependência comportamental e a negligenciar os principais processos psicológicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Billieux, Schimment, Khazaal, Maurage, &amp; Heeren, 2015</xref>). Surge, então, uma necessidade de investigar mais sobre a dependência comportamental e passar de uma abordagem baseada em critérios para uma focada nos processos psicológicos envolvidos - motivacional, afetivo, cognitivo, interpessoal e social (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Billieux et al., 2015</xref>). Posto isto, o uso da internet deve deixar de ser visto como uma doença - paradigma de patologia - e passar a ser relacionado com hábitos de autorregulação - paradigma cognitivo-comportamental (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Pontes et al., 2016</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Uso problemático da internet</title>
			<p>Na sequência do referido anteriormente, é então que surge o conceito de uso problemático da internet (UPI) que, segundo <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Tokunaga (2015</xref>), foi adotado por grande parte dos investigadores que utilizam o modelo cognitivo-comportamental desenvolvido por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis (2001</xref>) e o modelo sociocognitivo do uso da internet não regulamentada desenvolvido por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">LaRose, Lin e Eastin (2003</xref>). De acordo com estas perspetivas, o UPI não é visto como uma doença, patologia ou perturbação clínica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Pontes et al., 2016</xref>), mas sim como um padrão distinto de cognições e comportamentos que originam resultados negativos para a vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Assunção &amp; Matos, 2017</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Tokunaga (2015</xref>) refere ainda que o UPI se situa na faixa média do <italic>continuum</italic> da severidade do problema e é de natureza benigna, enquanto a adição à internet se situa na extremidade superior do <italic>continuum</italic> exigindo a experiência de graves consequências negativas para a vida.</p>
			<p>O conceito “uso problemático da internet” foi proposto por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beard e Wolf (2001</xref>), sendo que investigadores como Caplan e Davis também o adotaram. Este termo surgiu para definir o uso da internet que provoca, na vida das pessoas, dificuldades psicológicas, sociais, académicas e/ou profissionais. Para estes autores, o termo “problemático” é mais adequado, pois apresenta menos discordâncias teóricas do que outras terminologias. Por outras palavras, o UPI é uma síndrome multidimensional constituída por sintomas cognitivos e comportamentais que resultam em problemas sociais, académicos ou profissionais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Caplan, 2002</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Shapira et al. (2003</xref>), por sua vez, definem o UPI como uma preocupação mal-adaptativa com o uso da internet que causa sofrimento significativo e/ou prejuízo. É ainda relevante acrescentar que alguns investigadores entendem o UPI como uma forma de procura de reafirmação e/ou um comportamento de evitamento que se destina a reduzir emoções negativas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Wan &amp; Chiou, 2006</xref>). Para além de estar destinado a reduzir emoções negativas, pode estar associado a um maior sofrimento subjetivo, comprometimento funcional e perturbações psiquiátricas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Shapira, Goldsmith, Keck, Khosla, &amp; McElroy, 2000</xref>). Em suma, o UPI poderia ser caracterizado pela incapacidade do indivíduo em controlar o uso da internet, que por sua vez, conduz a sentimentos de angústia e ao comprometimento das atividades diárias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Shapira et al., 2000</xref>).</p>
			<p>De acordo com a literatura, o UPI pode ainda ser definido como específico ou generalizado. De acordo com <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis (2001</xref>), o específico se refere ao uso excessivo de funções específicas de conteúdos da internet, tais como jogar ou ver material on-line de cariz sexual, mas estas problemáticas comportamentais podem manifestar-se de forma alternativa se o indivíduo for incapaz de aceder à internet. Por outro lado, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis (2001</xref>) conceptualiza o generalizado como um uso não-específico e multidimensional da internet que resulta em consequências negativas para o indivíduo. Manifestações do UPI generalizado incluem cognições e comportamentos mal-adaptativos relacionados ao uso da internet que não sejam específicos. Ou seja, a internet é, nestes casos, usada como um veículo para múltiplos propósitos.</p>
			<p>Como já foi referido anteriormente, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis (2001</xref>) desenvolveu o modelo cognitivo-comportamental do UPI que sugere que os indivíduos que sofrem de problemas psicossociais são mais propensos a desenvolver UPI. Este modelo menciona que esse fenómeno está estreitamente relacionado com cognições problemáticas, sendo também associado a comportamentos que mantêm ou aumentam estas cognições desajustadas, resultando em consequências negativas para o indivíduo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis, 2001</xref>). O ponto central deste modelo prende-se com as cognições mal-adaptativas, que emergem por haver uma disfunção cognitiva, podendo ser acerca de si próprio e/ou do mundo, sendo, segundo o autor, suficientes para o aparecimento do UPI. As primeiras dizem respeito a uma visão negativa de si próprio, conduzindo a uma procura de respostas positivas pelos outros, de uma forma não temível, através da internet (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis, 2001</xref>)<italic>.</italic> As segundas, relacionam-se pelo facto do indivíduo considerar que a internet é o único local em que é amado e respeitado pelos outros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis, 2001</xref>).</p>
			<p>As respostas positivas que resultam do estar on-line reforçam o comportamento do indivíduo, aumentando, assim, a probabilidade de nova ocorrência. Uma vez que houve reforço, o indivíduo torna-se condicionado a realizar a atividade mais constantemente de maneira a atingir a mesma resposta que no acontecimento inicial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis, 2001</xref>).</p>
			<p>Os sintomas cognitivos e comportamentais do UPI parecem estar especialmente relacionados com a interação social on-line. Além disso, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Caplan (2010</xref>) reconheceu que um indivíduo que sofra de problemas psicossociais tenderá a desenvolver perceções negativas das suas competências sociais, que o levarão à preferência pelo estabelecimento de interações sociais on-line, ao invés das tradicionais face-a-face. Esta preferência poderá levar o indivíduo a se autorregular de forma deficiente no que toca à utilização que faz da internet (através do aumento da preocupação cognitiva por estar on-line e uso compulsivo dela) e a utilizá-la para regular o humor (o que, por sua vez, aumentará a autorregulação deficiente). Esta autorregulação deficiente manifestar-se-á, em última instância, em consequências negativas em diversos níveis da vida do indivíduo (e.g., económico, académico/laboral, familiar, social etc.). Por outras palavras, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Caplan (2010</xref>) reconhece constructos cognitivos e comportamentais que se relacionam com as consequências negativas que estão associadas ao uso da internet - preferência pela interação social on-line; regulação de humor; autorregulação deficiente; preocupação cognitiva e comportamento compulsivo.</p>
			<p>Posto isto, e numa tentativa de avançar na conceituação do UPI, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Caplan (2010</xref>) procurou esclarecer as construções cognitivo-comportamentais de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis (2001</xref>), desenvolvendo dois instrumentos psicométricos baseados na teoria de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis (2001</xref>) para avaliar o UPI generalizado - <italic>Generalized problematic internet use scale</italic> (GPIUS) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Caplan, 2002</xref>) e <italic>Generalized problematic internet use scale</italic> 2 (GPIUS2) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Caplan, 2010</xref>; os estudos de validade factorial, de construto, convergente e discriminante na população portuguesa foram realizados por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Pontes et al., 2016</xref>).</p>
			<p>Importa ainda referir que, em muitas investigações, o uso problemático da internet está relacionado com a presença de várias comorbilidades, tais como perturbações do humor, de uso de substâncias, de ansiedade, de controlo dos impulsos e de personalidade. Assim como com a presença de vários fatores de risco, tais como, idade, sexo masculino (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Tsai et al., 2009</xref>), falta de suporte emocional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Griffiths, 2015</xref>), funcionamento familiar deficitário (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Wartberg, Kriston, Kammerl, Petersen, &amp; Thomasius, 2015</xref>), défice de habilidades sociais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Caplan, 2005</xref>), isolamento social (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Tokunaga, 2015</xref>), bem-estar emocional mais pobre (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Piguet et al, 2015</xref>) e fraco desempenho académico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Boubeta, Ferreiro, Salgado, &amp; Couto, 2015</xref>). Posto isto, não é possível definir ainda, fruto da escassez de estudos longitudinais (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Tokunaga, 2014</xref>), se o uso problemático da internet é a perturbação primária ou se está associado a outras patologias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Carli et al., 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Echeburúa, 2000</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Em conclusão: que termo usar?</title>
			<p>O termo “uso problemático da internet” pode ser considerado o mais adequado por duas razões: em primeiro lugar, estamos de acordo com <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beard e Wolf (2001</xref>) e <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Caplan (2002</xref>) que adotam que a perspetiva da adição (“vício”) é inadequada por falta de clareza conceptual e continua a ser discutível se o uso excessivo de internet constitui um vício; em segundo lugar, comparado a “patológico” ou “inadaptado”, o termo “problemático” descreve o comportamento de forma mais abrangente, cobrindo toda a gama de comportamentos problemáticos - de comportamentos leves a severamente perturbados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Ang, Chong, Chye, &amp; Huan, 2012</xref>).</p>
			<p>Além disso, a perspectiva cognitivo-comportamental utilizada na definição do UPI apresenta maior flexibilidade e valor clínico ao contemplar um <italic>continuum</italic> de severidade em relação ao uso excessivo da internet, permitindo um maior entendimento por parte dos agentes de saúde mental sobre a forma e intensidade como o UPI pode afetar os diversos domínios da vida dos utilizadores problemáticos.</p>
			<p>Embora este estudo de revisão tenha concluído que o termo “uso problemático da internet” seja o mais adequado para descrever e caracterizar o fenómeno em análise, tal conclusão pode ser interpretada como potencialmente limitada por não resultar de uma análise proveniente de dados empíricos, mas sim de um processo dedutivo em função da literatura analisada. Deste modo, sugere-se que estudos futuros investiguem com sistematicidade a adequação desta conclusão a nível empírico. Por exemplo, uma vez que o UPI encontra-se associado a atividades on-line específicas, tendo portanto, um foco (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Griffiths &amp; Szabo, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Pontes, Szabo, &amp; Griffiths, 2015</xref>), torna-se pertinente explorar de que modo o uso de aplicações e funcionalidades específicas contribuem para o uso excessivo e potencialmente problemático da internet. Neste sentido, estudos com design experimental poderão ser úteis na exploração e aprofundamento sobre a natureza dos comportamentos aditivos on-line. De igual modo, futuros estudos que utilizem dados comportamentais (<italic>behavioral data</italic>) poderão ser benéficos no cumprimento deste objetivo e na clarificação sobre a distinção entre o uso normal, uso excessivo e uso problemático da internet, uma vez que a literatura existente não fornece uma resposta cabal a esta questão.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
				<label><sup>1</sup></label>
				<p>Esse trabalho teve apoio de National Funds, proporcionado pela FCT (Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia) para os projetos estratégicos PEst-OE/FIL/UI0683/2014.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="s1" xml:lang="en">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Internet addiction or problematic internet use? Which term should be used?<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7241-9036</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Fernandes</surname>
						<given-names>Beatriz</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>a</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6640-6033</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Maia</surname>
						<given-names>Berta Rodrigues</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>a</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"><sup>*</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8020-7623</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Pontes</surname>
						<given-names>Halley M.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>b</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff3">
				<label>a</label>
				<institution content-type="original">The Catholic University of Portugal, Faculty of Philosophy and Social Sciences. Braga Regional Centre, Portugal</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff4">
				<label>b</label>
				<institution content-type="original">University of Tasmania, Department of Psychology. Faculty of Medicine. Sydney, Australia</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2">
					<label>*</label> Corresponding address: <email>bmaia@braga.ucp.pt</email>
				</corresp>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Internet use has increased exponentially worldwide. Although the use itself is not negative, since it integrates several benefits, some individuals seem to show problems related to its excessive, uncontrolled, and dysfunctional use. Therefore, the interest of researchers in exploring this use, when it is excessive and unhealthy, has been growing, especially in the last two decades. However, being a subject/construct treated by different authors with different theoretical frameworks, several terms are used in the literature to describe this phenomenon. Regarding this, this article proposes to present a literature review of two of the most used and shared concepts in the scientific literature, that is, internet addiction and problematic internet use.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>internet addiction</kwd>
				<kwd>problematic internet use</kwd>
				<kwd>conceptualization</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introduction</title>
				<p>Internet use has increased exponentially in recent years, being more common every day. For illustrative purposes, the most recent report by the Instituto Nacional de Estatística (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Portuguese Institute of Statistics, 2014</xref>) tells us that about 65% of the Portuguese population between 16 and 74 years old uses the Internet regularly, and its use is more prevalent among young people aged 16 to 24. A report published by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Marktest (2016</xref>) reported that the number of users increased more than ten times in the last 18 years, going from a penetration rate of 6.3% in 1997 to 65.4% in 2016. Worldwide, however, more than 7.5 billion people have access to the Internet, which is equivalent to 49.6% of the world population. Europe is the second place in the Internet penetration rate, with a percentage of 77.4% (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Internet World Stats, 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>Although moderate and healthy use of the Internet alone does not represent significant risks and is generally beneficial for most users, a minority of the population shows problems related to their excessive, uncontrolled and dysfunctional use (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Pontes, Caplan, &amp; Griffiths, 2016</xref>). Given its relevance, the number of studies published on internet addiction has been increasing exponentially over the last two decades, and in 2018 more than 1,600 studies were published in national and international scientific journals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Wiederhold, 2018</xref>). In general, scientific literature reports consistent associations between problematic internet use and a variety of psychosocial problems, such as poorer emotional well-being (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Griffiths, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Piguet, Berchtold, Akre, &amp; Suris, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Pontes et al., 2016</xref>) or higher levels of psychopathology, such as depression (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Cabral, Pereira, &amp; Teixeira, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Mendes &amp; Silva, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Pontes, Patrão, &amp; Griffiths, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Tokunaga &amp; Rains, 2016</xref>).</p>
				<p>The scientific community has not agreed on the best term to be used to describe the use and abuse of new technologies. On the one hand, some authors advocate the existence of an addiction to new technologies, included in behavioral addictions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Carbonell, Fúster, Chamarro, &amp; Oberst, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">García del Castillo, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Potenza, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Vivas &amp; Torres, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Young, 1998</xref>). On the other hand, other authors claim that the addictive potential of new technologies is speculative (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Carbonell et al., 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Echeburúa, &amp; Corral, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">García del Castillo, 2013</xref>). Recently, several authors have been reinforcing the idea that the concept of internet addiction is not appropriate to describe the phenomenon associated with negative consequences resulted from excessive and dysfunctional use (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Starcevic &amp; Aboujaoude, 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>Therefore, different theoretical models and terminologies used to describe the excessive behavior of internet use exist, including <italic>internet addiction</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Young, 1998</xref>), <italic>pathological internet use</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis, 2001</xref>), <italic>problematic internet use</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Caplan, 2002</xref>), <italic>or internet dependence</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Chen, Tarn, &amp; Han, 2004</xref>). Thus, this review will contribute to the clarification of the terminology used in this area, specifically on the <italic>addiction</italic> and <italic>problematic use</italic> terms.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Internet addiction</title>
				<p>Most of the initial studies on internet addiction were conducted by Kimberly Young in the United States and Mark Griffiths in the United Kingdom (e.g., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Griffiths, 1995</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Young, 1998</xref>). According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Young (1998</xref>), internet addiction is a broad term that integrates a variety of behaviors and impulse control problems, which is categorized into five specific subtypes: <italic>cybersexual addiction</italic> (compulsive use of adult websites for <italic>cybersex</italic> and <italic>cyberporn</italic>), <italic>cyber-relationship addiction</italic> (excessive involvement in online relationships), <italic>net compulsions</italic> (obsessive online games or shopping), <italic>information overload</italic> (excessive navigation) and, lastly, <italic>computer addiction</italic> (obsessive computer game playing).</p>
				<p>Internet addiction became a relevant study area (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">King, Delfabbro, &amp; Griffiths, 2012</xref>); however, researchers did not reach consensus regarding the official definition of the problem and its place in the classifications, because it is a phenomenon still under study (Employer et al., 2017) and numerous methodological limitations are related to the construct evaluation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">King et al., 2012</xref>).</p>
				<p>Internet addiction can be seen as a specifically psychological addiction (such as sex addiction, shopping, video games etc.), with particularities common to other types of dependence, such as loss of control, withdrawal symptoms, strong psychological dependence, interference in daily life and loss of interest in other activities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Kuss &amp; Griffiths, 2017</xref>). Internet addiction has also been characterized as a pattern of maladaptive use that can cause clinically significant damage in the person’s life (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Elhai, Dvorak, Levine, &amp; Hall, 2017</xref>). Recently, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">Kuss and Pontes (2019</xref>) defined the phenomenon as a behavioral pattern involving the experience of dysfunctional craving regarding internet use for excessive periods of time without self-regulation by the individual, resulting in significant psychological, social, and functional damages. That is, the internet-dependent individual spends a considerable time daily on online activities that are not essential, developing a distancing from social contacts outside the Internet<italic>,</italic> a distortion of their personal goals, interests and a loss of academic and/or professional performance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Patrão et al., 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>To better understand internet addiction, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Griffiths (2005</xref>) developed a components model of addiction, which indicates that all addictions are based on six distinct common components (salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, and relapse). That is, addictions (with or without the use of substances) are part of a biopsychosocial process and increasing data suggest that excessive behaviors of all types seem to have many similarities. This is a conclusion supported from recent studies that reveal similarities between different types of addictive behaviors (with or without substance uses) at the neural circuit level and activation of the behavioral reinforcement area in the brain (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Sharifat, Rashid, &amp; Suppiah, 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>Over the years, several authors have proposed other models to explain the development and maintenance of excessive behaviors related to internet use, such as the model of anonymity, convenience and escape (ACE) developed to evaluate cybersex addiction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Young, Griffin-Shelley, Cooper, O’Mara, &amp; Buchanan, 2000</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Grohol’s (2017</xref>) model of pathological internet use and the comprehensive model of the development and maintenance of internet addiction by Winkler and Dörsing (as cited by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Cash, Rae, Steel, &amp; Winkler, 2012</xref>). A neurobiological-centralized model proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Brand, Young and Laier (2014</xref>) was developed to attempt to explain internet-related disturbances. Currently, this model has been updated to better define the idea that all addictive behaviors are developed as a consequence of the interaction between risk factors, affective and cognitive responses to specific stimuli, as well as executive functions (inhibitory control and decision making) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Brand et al., 2019</xref>). However, this model lacks empirical validation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Pontes, Kuss, &amp; Griffiths, 2015</xref>). Regarding the internet addiction evaluation, one of the most popular psychometric instruments is the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Young (1998</xref>), which was used to conduct factorial, construct, convergent and discriminant validity studies in the Portuguese population by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Pontes, Patrão and Griffiths (2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>However, despite the lack of agreement, internet addiction is not related to what actually determines the dependencies (tolerance, dependence, withdrawal syndrome, etc.) and the proposed diagnosis criteria for the addiction disturbance to be included in the formal diagnoses of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) have also not been admitted, neither by the American Psychiatric Association nor by the World Health Organization-only the internet game disturbance was included with a suggestion for future studies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">American Psychiatric Association, 2013</xref>). According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Starcevic (2013</xref>, p. 16), the concept of internet addiction faces two types of challenges: “The first one is about it being an addiction. The second refers to the Internet as a medium to which a person is presumably addicted” That is, several authors (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Griffiths &amp; Szabo, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Pontes &amp; Patrão, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Pontes, Szabo, &amp; Griffiths, 2015</xref>) consider that the term “addiction” would be more concrete and appropriate to refer to the specific activity understood as addictive (e.g. dependence on online video games). Hence, the existing and frequently used nomenclature to define the phenomenon shows conceptual problems resulted from different theoretical positions. In addition, empirical evidence suggests that the term “internet addiction” should be replaced by another term that reflects addictions in specific online activities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Pontes, Szabo, &amp; Griffiths, 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>Therefore, we can affirm that internet addiction seems to be related to specific uses of some internet features and not with its general use. Thus, users are not “addicted” to the Internet<italic>,</italic> but rather to one or several specific online activities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Billieux, 2012</xref>). Besides internet addiction, other cybernetic addictions are frequent (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Billieux, 2012</xref>), such as the “addiction to online video games” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Billieux et al., 2011</xref>), “addiction to online gambling” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Griffiths, 2003</xref>), “addiction to online sex” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Meerkerk, Van den Eijnden, &amp; Garretsen, 2006</xref>) and “addiction to social networks” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Wilson, Fornasier, &amp; White, 2010</xref>). All these addictions entail negative consequences for the individual’s life and show common risk factors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Billieux, 2012</xref>). Internet addiction should be conceptualized within a broader range of “cybernetic addictions” that undergo behaviors that depend on specific online activities and/or activities involving communication between individuals through technology devices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Billieux, 2012</xref>).</p>
				<p>Another debatable element associated with internet addiction is that, unlike dependencies, the Internet offers multiple benefits and, as such, should not be seen as a device to be criticized as “addictive”: (1) the Internet enables speed in communication, has an interactive character and is a support for learning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Spizzirri, Wagner, Mosmann, &amp; Armani, 2012</xref>); (2) the Internet has become an important social context for older people as it influences their well-being, that is, by using the Internet they increase perceived levels of social support, reduce loneliness, improve life satisfaction and improve their psychological well-being (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Heo, Chun, Lee, Lee, &amp; Kim, 2015</xref>); (3) university students, in particular, can obtain many benefits from the use of the Internet for educational purposes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Rayan et al., 2017</xref>)-access to online journals, language learning, academic research, online library navigation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Al-Gamal, Alzayyat, &amp; Ahmad, 2016</xref>)-and also for relational purposes-navigation in social networks, online socialization and, even, establishing relationships (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Jones, Johnson-Yale, Millermaier, &amp; Pérez, 2009</xref>); (4) the Internet can be seen as an important means to increase life satisfaction among more fragile citizens and social groups-people of low economic levels and/or people suffering from health problems that interfere with the normal functioning of their daily life (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Lissitsa &amp; Chachashvili-Bolotin, 2016</xref>); (5) it can be used as a way to increase perceived social support, for example, through Facebook, which in turn decreases stress levels and increases psychological well-being. That is, Internet can be seen as an indirect benefit to health (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Wiederhold, 2017</xref>). In general, it is a highly diffused technology tool that hinders addiction detection and diagnosis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Young, 2004</xref>).</p>
				<p>This concept has received numerous criticisms, for instance: (1) lack of theoretical specificity and dependence concept-disregards what people are really doing when they are online (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Caplan, 2002</xref>); (2) Lack of international consensus on the concept and diagnosis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Griffiths, Kuss, Billieux, &amp; Pontes, 2016</xref>); (3) Lack of clarification of specific issues on internet addiction include three closely related problem areas: terminology, diagnostic conceptions, and measurements (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Demetrovics, Szeredi, &amp; Rózsa, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Tokunaga, 2015</xref>); (4) Part of the studies about internet addiction are exploratory studies, which resort to self-selected samples and do not show control groups (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">DeAngelis, 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Tokunaga, 2015</xref>) (5) Some researchers consider that perhaps the personal, professional and social consequences attributed to this behavior might, in fact, only be symptoms of other disturbances or primary psychological problems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Pies, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Shaffer, Hall, &amp; Vander Bilt, 2000</xref>); and (6) Published investigations lack theoretical reference approaches and fail to determine causal relations between the consequences described and internet use falling into the error of “ignoring the common cause” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Grohol, 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>In conclusion, using the term internet addiction is a mistake and the expression must be abandoned, even though it has become widely used (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Pontes et al., 2016</xref>). A tendency of “overpathologizing” addictive behaviors has been shown, which may lead to a doubtful assessment of the studies on behavioral dependence and a negligence in the main psychological processes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Billieux, Schimment, Khazaal, Maurage, &amp; Heeren, 2015</xref>). A necessity to investigate more about behavioral dependence and move from a criteria-based approach to one focused on the psychological-motivational, affective, cognitive, interpersonal, and social-processes involved (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Billieux et al., 2015</xref>). Therefore, internet use should cease to be seen as a disease-a pathology paradigm-and be related to self-regulation habits-cognitive-behavioral paradigm (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Pontes et al., 2016</xref>).</p>
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				<title>Problematic internet use</title>
				<p>The concept of problematic internet use (PIU) then arises, which, according to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Tokunaga (2015</xref>), was adopted by many researchers who use the cognitive-behavioral model developed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis (2001</xref>) and the socio-cognitive model of the unregulated internet usage developed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">LaRose, Lin and Eastin (2003</xref>). According to these perspectives, PIU is not seen as a disease, pathology or clinical disturbance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Pontes et al., 2016</xref>), but rather as a distinct pattern of cognitions and behaviors that result in negative results for daily life (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Assunção &amp; Matos, 2017</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Tokunaga (2015</xref>) states that PIU is situated in the middle range of the severity <italic>continuum</italic> of the problem and has a benign nature, while internet addiction is placed at the upper end of the <italic>continuum</italic>, requiring the experience of serious negative life consequences.</p>
				<p>The “problematic internet use” concept was proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beard and Wolf (2001</xref>) and adopted by researchers such as Caplan and Davis. This term emerged to define internet use that causes, in people’s lives, psychological, social, academic, and/or professional struggles. According to these authors, the term “problematic” is more appropriate as it shows fewer theoretical discrepancies than other terminologies. In other words, PIU is a multidimensional syndrome, composed of cognitive and behavioral symptoms that result in social, academic or professional problems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Caplan, 2002</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Shapira et al. (2003</xref>), however, define PIU as a maladaptive concern with internet use that causes significant suffering and/or impairment. Some investigators understand PIU as a form of seeking reaffirmation and/or an avoidance behavior intended to reduce negative emotions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Wan &amp; Chiou, 2006</xref>). In addition, it might be associated with a greater subjective suffering, functional impairment and psychiatric disturbances (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Shapira, Goldsmith, Keck, Khosla, &amp; McElroy, 2000</xref>). In short, PIU could be characterized by the inability of the individual to control internet use, which in turn leads to feelings of anguish and daily activity impairment (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Shapira et al., 2000</xref>).</p>
				<p>According to the literature, PIU can also be defined as specific or generalized. According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis (2001</xref>), specific PIU refers to the excessive use of specific features of Internet content, such as playing or viewing online material of sexual nature, but these behavioral problems can be manifested alternatively if the individual is unable to access Internet. On the other hand, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis (2001</xref>) conceptualizes generalized PIU as a non-specific and multidimensional internet use that results in negative consequences for the individual. Generalized PIU manifestations include cognitions and maladaptive behaviors related to non-specific internet use. In other words, the Internet is, in these cases, used as a multipurpose vehicle.</p>
				<p>As previously mentioned, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis (2001</xref>) developed the PIU cognitive-behavioral model that suggests that individuals suffering from psychosocial problems are more likely to develop PIU. This model mentions that this phenomenon is closely related to problematic cognitions and associated with behaviors that maintain or increase these mismatched cognitions, resulting in negative consequences for the individual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis, 2001</xref>). The central point of this model connects to maladaptive cognitions, which emerge due to a cognitive dysfunction about oneself and/or the world and are, according to the author, sufficient for the PIU onset. The first ones regards a negative view of oneself, leading to a search for positive answers by others, in a non-fearsome way, through the Internet (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis, 2001</xref>)<italic>.</italic> The second ones are related to the fact that the individual considers that the Internet is the only place in which he is loved and respected by others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis, 2001</xref>).</p>
				<p>The positive responses that result from being online reinforce the individual’s behavior, thus increasing the likelihood of a new occurrence. Once the reinforcement occurred, the individual becomes conditioned to perform the activity more constantly to achieve the same response as the one in the first event (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis, 2001</xref>).</p>
				<p>PIU’s cognitive and behavioral symptoms seem to be especially associated to online social interaction. In addition, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Caplan (2010</xref>) acknowledged that individuals suffering from psychosocial problems will tend to develop negative perceptions of their social competences, which will lead them to prefer establishing online social interactions, rather than traditional face-to-face interactions. This preference may lead the individual to self-regulate in an deficient way when it comes to using the Internet (through increased cognitive concern for being online and its compulsive use) and to use the Internet to regulate mood (which, in turn, will increase deficient self-regulation). This deficient self-regulation will ultimately reveal negative consequences at many levels of the individual’s life (e.g., economic, academic/work, family, social etc.). In other words, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Caplan (2010</xref>) recognizes cognitive and behavioral constructs that relate to negative consequences associated with internet use-preference for online social interaction; mood regulation; deficient self-regulation; cognitive concern and compulsive behavior.</p>
				<p>Therefore, in an attempt to advance the PIU conception, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Caplan (2010</xref>) sought to clarify the cognitive-behavioral constructions of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis (2001</xref>), developing two psychometric instruments based on <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Davis (2001</xref>) theory to evaluate Generalized PIU - Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Caplan, 2002</xref>) and <italic>Generalized</italic> Problematic Internet Use Scale 2 (GPIUS2) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Caplan, 2010</xref>; the factorial, construct, convergent and discriminant validity studies in the Portuguese population were conducted by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Pontes et al., 2016</xref>).</p>
				<p>In many investigations, the problematic internet use is associated to the presence of several comorbidities, such as mood disturbances, substance use, anxiety, impulse, and personality control. As well as with the presence of several risk factors, such as age, male gender (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Tsai et al., 2009</xref>), lack of emotional support (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Griffiths, 2015</xref>), deficient family functioning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Wartberg, Kriston, Kammerl, Petersen, &amp; Thomasius, 2015</xref>), deficit of social skills (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Caplan, 2005</xref>), social isolation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Tokunaga, 2015</xref>), poorer emotional well-being (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Piguet et al, 2015</xref>) and poor academic performance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Boubeta, Ferreiro, Salgado, &amp; Couto, 2015</xref>). Therefore, defining if the problematic internet use is the primary disturbance or if it is associated with other pathologies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Carli et al., 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Echeburúa, 2000</xref>) is still not possible, due to the scarce longitudinal studies (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Tokunaga, 2014</xref>).</p>
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				<title>In conclusion: what term should be used?</title>
				<p>The term “problematic internet use” can be considered the most appropriate for two reasons: firstly, we agree with <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Beard and Wolf (2001</xref>) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Caplan (2002</xref>) who defend that the addiction perspective is inadequate due to the lack of concept accuracy and the theory that excessive internet is an addiction is still debatable; Secondly, compared to “pathological” or “inappropriate”, the term “problematic” describes the behavior in a broader way, covering the whole range of problematic behaviors-from mild to severely disturbed behaviors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Ang, Chong, Chye, &amp; Huan, 2012</xref>).</p>
				<p>Moreover, the cognitive-behavioral perspective used in the PIU definition shows greater flexibility and clinical value when contemplating a severity <italic>continuum</italic> regarding excessive internet use, allowing a better understanding by mental health agents about the form and intensity that PIU can affect the many aspects of troubled users’ lives.</p>
				<p>Although this review study concluded that the “problematic internet use” is the most appropriate term to describe and characterize the phenomenon under analysis, this conclusion can be interpreted as potentially limited since is not resulted from an empirical data analysis, but rather from a deductive process according to the literature analyzed. Hence, it is suggested that future studies systematically investigate the adequacy of this conclusion at the empirical level. For instance, as PIU is associated with specific online activities, having therefore a focus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Griffiths &amp; Szabo, 2014</xref>; Bridges, Szabo, &amp; Griffiths, 2015), it is pertinent to explore how the use of specific <italic>apps</italic> and features contribute to excessive and potentially problematic internet use. As such, studies with experimental design may be useful in exploring and deepening the nature of online addictive behaviors. Similarly, future studies using behavioral data may be beneficial in fulfilling this objective and clarifying the distinction between normal use, excessive use and problematic use of the Internet, since the existing literature does not provide a conclusive answer to this issue.</p>
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					<p>This work was supported by National Funds, provided through FCT (Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia) to the strategic projects PEst-OE/FIL/UI0683/2014.</p>
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